“骯髒食物”的概念在越南很熟悉，並已導致嚴重後果。消費“骯髒食物”的情況被評估為在消費者中達到令人震驚的高度。在這種情況下，有機食品被認為可以確保消費者的安全和健康，同時提供滿足其需求的全面營養。設計了一份問卷，旨在調查影響越南和台灣消費者購買有機食品意圖的一些因素，這兩個亞洲國家的經濟發展水平不同。擴展的計劃行為理論（TPB）被用作本研究的理論框架。數據使用 SmartPLS 3 軟件收集和分析。八個假設中有五個在兩國都得到了支持，其中主觀規範對購買意圖的影響最強，而對有機標籤的信任對購買有機食品態度的影響最大。還使用 T 檢驗和線性回歸來比較越南和台灣假設之間的關係。還進行了一項附加研究，以使用眼動儀數據調查對有機標籤的關注對購買意圖的影響。儘管結果未得到支持，但該研究仍提供了一些見解。研究結果可以幫助有機食品行業利益相關者制定營銷策略，以吸引更多消費者購買有機食品。研究的局限性也已確定，這些為未來的研究提供了途徑。

The concept of “dirty food” is familiar in Vietnam and has led to serious consequences. The situation of consuming “dirty food” is assessed as being at an alarming high among consumers. In this context, organic food is considered to ensure the safety and health for consumers while providing comprehensive nutrients that meets their needs. An questionnaire was designed with the aim of investigating some factors influencing buying intention toward organic food among consumers in Vietnam and Taiwan, two Asian countries with different levels of economic development. The extended Theory of Planned Behaviour was utilized as a theoretical framework for this study. Data was collected and analyzed using SmartPLS 3 software. Five out of eight hypotheses received support from both nations, with subjective norm having the strongest impact on purchase intention, while trust in organic label has the most significant affect to attitude towards buying organic food. T- test and Linear Regression were also used to compare the relationships between hypotheses in Vietnam and Taiwan. An additional study was conducted to investigate the effect of attention on organic label on purchase intention by using eye tracker data. Even though the results were not supported, there were still insights gained from the study. The findings of the study can help organic food industry stakeholders in marketing strategies to attract more consumers towards organic food. Limitations of the research are also identified and these provide paths for future research.

Abstract..........................................................................i
摘要 ............................................................................ii
Acknowledgements................................................................iii
Table of Contents................................................................iv
List of Tables...................................................................vi
List of Figures.................................................................vii
Abbreviations..................................................................viii
Chapter 1. Introduction...........................................................1
1.1 Research background...........................................................1
1.2 Research purpose..............................................................2
1.3 Research process..............................................................3
Chapter 2. Literature review......................................................4
2.1 Theory of Planned Behavior....................................................4
2.2 Factors influencing the intention to purchase organic food....................5
2.2.1 Factors affects directly the intention to buy organic food..................5
2.2.2 Factors affect the attitude toward buying organic food directly.............6
2.3 Eye tracker experiment and the effect of organic food labels on consumer attention.........................................................................9
2.3.1 Eye tracker.................................................................9
2.4 Proposal Model................................................................9
Chapter 3. Research Methodology..................................................11
3.1 Questionnaire design.........................................................11
3.2 Pilot test...................................................................13
3.3 The design of the formal quantitative research...............................15
3.4 Survey data analysis.........................................................15
3.4.1 Partial least square – Structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM)..............15
3.4.2 Internal consistency reliability...........................................16
3.4.3 Validity...................................................................16
3.4.4 Structural Model Evaluation................................................16
3.4.5 T-Test and Multiple Linear Regression Analysis.............................18
3.5 Set-up eye tracker experiment................................................19
Chapter 4. Results...............................................................22
4.1 Demographic statistics.......................................................22
4.2 Descriptive statistics.......................................................24
4.3 Reflective measurement model assessment......................................25
4.4 Structural model assessment .................................................28
4.5 T-Test and Multiple Linear Regression Analysis...............................30
4.6 Eye tracking experiment results..............................................34
Chapter 5. Discussions, conclusions, and implications............................39
5.1 Conclusion and Discussions...................................................39
5.2 Theoretical implications.....................................................41
5.3 Practical implications.......................................................43
5.4 Limitations .................................................................44
References.......................................................................46
Appendix I: Questionnaire (English)..............................................53
Appendix II: Questionnaire (Vietnamese) .........................................60
Appendix III: Questionnaire (Taiwanese) .........................................66
Appendix IV: The results of Cronbach’s Alpha in pilot test.......................73
Appendix V: Post-experiment survey...............................................75
Appendix VI: Scatterplot.........................................................77
Extended Abstract................................................................80

[1] Aibinu, A.A., Al-Lawati, A.M., 2010. Using PLS-SEM technique to model construction organizations’ willingness to participate in e-bidding. Automation in Construction 19, 714–724.
[2] Aitken, R., Watkins, L., Williams, J., Kean, A., 2020. The positive role of labelling on consumers’ perceived behavioural control and intention to purchase organic food. Journal of Cleaner Production 255, 120334.
[3] Ajzen, I., 2012. Martin Fishbein’s Legacy: The Reasoned Action Approach. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 640, 11–27.
[4] Ajzen, I., 1991. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Theories of Cognitive Self-Regulation 50, 179–211.
[5] Al-Swidi, A., Mohammed Rafiul Huque, S., Haroon Hafeez, M., Noor Mohd Shariff, M., 2014. The role of subjective norms in theory of planned behavior in the context of organic food consumption. British Food Journal 116, 1561–1580.
[6] Basha, M.B., Lal, D., 2019. Indian consumers’ attitudes towards purchasing organically produced foods: An empirical study. Journal of Cleaner Production 215, 99–111.
[7] Bauer, H.H., Heinrich, D., Schäfer, D.B., 2013. The effects of organic labels on global, local, and private brands: More hype than substance? Journal of Business Research, Recent Advances in Globalization, Culture and Marketing Strategy 66, 1035–1043.
[8] Bong Ko, S., Jin, B., 2017. Predictors of purchase intention toward green apparel products: A cross-cultural investigation in the USA and China. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal 21, 70–87.
[9] Brace, I., 2018. Questionnaire Design: How to Plan, Structure and Write Survey Material for Effective Market Research. Kogan Page Publishers.
[10] Chan, K., 1998. Mass communication and pro-environmental behaviour: waste recycling in Hong Kong. Journal of Environmental Management 52, 317–325.
[11] Chen, M.-F., 2007. Consumer attitudes and purchase intentions in relation to organic foods in Taiwan: Moderating effects of food-related personality traits. Food Quality and Preference 18, 1008–1021.
[12] Chin, W.W., 1998. The partial least squares approach to structural equation modeling. Modern methods for business research 295, 295–336.
[13] Chu, K.M., 2018. Mediating Influences of Attitude on Internal and External Factors Influencing Consumers’ Intention to Purchase Organic Foods in China. Sustainability 10, 4690.
[14] Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (3rd ed.). Routledge.
[15] Couthouis, E., Aviron, S., Pétillon, J., Alignier, A., 2023. Ecological performance underlying ecosystem multifunctionality is promoted by organic farming and hedgerows at the local scale but not at the landscape scale. Journal of Applied Ecology 60, 17–28.
[16] Dean, M., Raats, M., Shepherd, R., 2008. Moral Concerns and Consumer Choice of Fresh and Processed Organic Foods1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 38, 2088–2107.
[17] Ejemeyovwi, J., Gershon, O., Doyah, T., 2018. Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Crop Production: Finding A Sustainable Balance. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy 8, 303–309.
[18] Field, A. (2013). Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics (4th ed.). SAGE Publications Ltd.
[19] Firbank, L.G., Petit, S., Smart, S., Blain, A., Fuller, R.J., 2007. Assessing the impacts of agricultural intensification on biodiversity: a British perspective. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363, 777–787.
[20] Fishbein, M., Ajzen, I., 2005. Theory-based Behavior Change Interventions: Comments on Hobbis and Sutton. J Health Psychol 10, 27–31.
[21] Gere, A., Rashed, M., Kókai, Z., Sipos, L., 2017. Application of eye-tracking methodology in food researches. Elelmiszervizsgalati Kozlemenyek 63, 1621–1632.
[22] Ghali-Zinoubi, Z., Toukabri, M., 2019. The antecedents of the consumer purchase intention: Sensitivity to price and involvement in organic product: Moderating role of product regional identity. Trends in Food Science & Technology 90, 175–179.
[23] Ghazali, N.H.M., 2016. A Reliability and Validity of an Instrument to Evaluate the School-Based Assessment System: A Pilot Study. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education 5, 148–157.
[24] Gillham, B., 2008. Developing a Questionnaire. A&C Black.
[25] Giray, C., Yon, B., Alniacik, U., Girisken, Y., 2022. How does mothers’ mood matter on their choice of organic food? Controlled eye-tracking study. Journal of Business Research 144, 1175–1185.
[26] Gould, S.J., 1988. Consumer Attitudes Toward Health and Health Care: A Differential Perspective. Journal of Consumer Affairs 22, 96–118.
[27] Gracia, A., De Magistris, T., 2007. Organic food product purchase behaviour: a pilot study for urban consumers in the South of Italy. Span J Agric Res 5, 439.
[28] Grinberga-Zalite, G., Pilvere, I., Muska, A., Kruzmetra, Z., 2021. Resilience of Meat Supply Chains during and after COVID-19 Crisis. Emerg Sci J 5, 57–66.
[29] Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E., 2014. Multivariate data analysis: Pearson new international edition. Essex: Pearson Education Limited 1.
[30] Hair, J.F., Ringle, C.M., Sarstedt, M., 2011. PLS-SEM: Indeed a Silver Bullet. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice 19, 139–152.
[31] Hair, J.F., Risher, J.J., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C.M., 2019. When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review 31, 2–24.
[32] Ham, M., Pap, A., Stanic, M., 2018. What drives organic food purchasing? – evidence from Croatia. British Food Journal 120, 734–748.
[33] Hansmann, R., Baur, I., Binder, C.R., 2020. Increasing organic food consumption: An integrating model of drivers and barriers. Journal of Cleaner Production 275, 123058.
[34] Henseler, J., 2017. Partial Least Squares Path Modeling, in: Leeflang, P.S.H., Wieringa, J.E., Bijmolt, T.H.A., Pauwels, K.H. (Eds.), Advanced Methods for Modeling Markets, International Series in Quantitative Marketing. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp. 361–381.
[35] Honkanen, P., Verplanken, B., Olsen, S.O., 2006. Ethical values and motives driving organic food choice. Journal of Consumer Behaviour 5, 420–430.
[36] Hwang, J., Chung, J.-E., 2019. What drives consumers to certain retailers for organic food purchase: The role of fit for consumers’ retail store preference. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 47, 293–306.
[37] Igbedioh, S.O., 1991. Effects of Agricultural Pesticides on Humans, Animals, and Higher Plants in Developing Countries. Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal 46, 218–224.
[38] Khurshid, M.A., Amin, M., Ismail, W.K.W., 2018. Total quality and socially responsible management (TQSR-M): An integrated conceptual framework. Benchmarking: An International Journal 25, 2566–2588.
[39] Kirmani, M.D., Shahzad, N., Ahmad, A., Uddin, S.M.F., Ayyub, S., Adil, M., 2022. Socio-environmental considerations and organic food consumption: An empirical investigation of the attitude of Indian consumers. Food Quality and Preference 100, 104604.
[40] Kock, N., Lynn, G., 2012. Lateral Collinearity and Misleading Results in Variance-Based SEM: An Illustration and Recommendations.
[41] Kothari, C.R., 2004. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Age International.
[42] Lamberz, J., Litfin, T., Teckert, Ö., Meeh-Bunse, G., 2020. Is there a Link between Sustainability, Perception and Buying Decision at the Point of Sale? Business Systems Research : International journal of the Society for Advancing Innovation and Research in Economy 11, 1–13.
[43] Lancaster, G.A., Dodd, S., Williamson, P.R., 2004. Design and analysis of pilot studies: recommendations for good practice. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 10, 307–312.
[44] Latan, H., Noonan, R. (Eds.), 2017. Partial Least Squares Path Modeling. Springer International Publishing, Cham.
[45] Lea, E., Worsley, T., 2005. Australians’ organic food beliefs, demographics and values. British Food Journal 107, 855–869.
[46] Lee, K.H., Bonn, M.A., Cho, M., 2015. Consumer motives for purchasing organic coffee: The moderating effects of ethical concern and price sensitivity. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 27, 1157–1180.
[47] Levene, H. (1960). Robust tests for equality of variances. Contributions to Probability and Statistics. Stanford University Press.
[48] Loera, B., Murphy, B., Fedi, A., Martini, M., Tecco, N., Dean, M., 2022. Understanding the purchase intentions for organic vegetables across EU: a proposal to extend the TPB model. British Food Journal 124, 4736–4754.
[49] Mai, N.T.T., Smith, K., Cao, J.R., 2009. Measurement of Modern and Traditional Self-Concepts in Asian Transitional Economies. Journal of Asia-Pacific Business 10, 201–220.
[50] Maichum, K., Parichatnon, S., Peng, K.-C., 2016. Application of the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior Model to Investigate Purchase Intention of Green Products among Thai Consumers. Sustainability 8, 1077.
[51] Marian, L., Chrysochou, P., Krystallis, A., Thøgersen, J., 2014. The role of price as a product attribute in the organic food context: An exploration based on actual purchase data. Food Quality and Preference 37, 52–60.
[52] Michaelidou, N., Hassan, L.M., 2008. The role of health consciousness, food safety concern and ethical identity on attitudes and intentions towards organic food. International Journal of Consumer Studies 32, 163–170.
[53] Milfont, T.L., Fischer, R., 2010. Testing measurement invariance across groups: Applications in cross-cultural research. International Journal of psychological research 3, 111–130.
[54] More, J., 2003. Organic Baby Food. The journal of family health care 13, 6–8.
[55] Murphy, B., Martini, M., Fedi, A., Loera, B.L., Elliott, C.T., Dean, M., 2022. Consumer trust in organic food and organic certifications in four European countries. Food Control 133, 108484.
[56] Nandi, R., Bokelmann, W., Gowdru, N.V., Dias, G., 2017. Factors Influencing Consumers’ Willingness to Pay for Organic Fruits and Vegetables: Empirical Evidence from a Consumer Survey in India. Journal of Food Products Marketing 23, 430–451.
[57] Ngo, H.M., Liu, R., Moritaka, M., Fukuda, S., 2020. Urban consumer trust in safe vegetables in Vietnam: The role of brand trust and the impact of consumer worry about vegetable safety. Food Control 108, 106856.
[58] Nguyen, H.V., Nguyen, N., Nguyen, B.K., Greenland, S., 2021. Sustainable Food Consumption: Investigating Organic Meat Purchase Intention by Vietnamese Consumers. Sustainability 13, 953.
[59] Nguyen, H.V., Nguyen, N., Nguyen, B.K., Lobo, A., Vu, P.A., 2019. Organic Food Purchases in an Emerging Market: The Influence of Consumers’ Personal Factors and Green Marketing Practices of Food Stores. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, 1037.
[60] Nuttavuthisit, K., Thøgersen, J., 2017. The Importance of Consumer Trust for the Emergence of a Market for Green Products: The Case of Organic Food. J Bus Ethics 140, 323–337.
[61] ONLINE T.T., 2023. Mỗi năm cả nước thải ra 1,8 triệu tấn rác thải nhựa [WWW Document]. TUOI TRE ONLINE. URL https://tuoitre.vn/moi-nam-ca-nuoc-thai-ra-1-8-trieu-tan-rac-thai-nhua-20230526151007627.htm (accessed 4.14.24).
[62] Osborne, J. W., & Waters, E. (2002). Four assumptions of multiple regression that researchers should always test. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 8(1), 2.
[63] Parashar, S., Singh, S., Sood, G., 2023. Examining the role of health consciousness, environmental awareness and intention on purchase of organic food: A moderated model of attitude. Journal of Cleaner Production 386, 135553.
[64] Paul, J., Modi, A., Patel, J., 2016. Predicting green product consumption using theory of planned behavior and reasoned action. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 29, 123–134.
[65] Pino, G., Peluso, A.M., Guido, G., 2012. Determinants of Regular and Occasional Consumers’ Intentions to Buy Organic Food. Journal of Consumer Affairs 46, 157–169.
[66] Policarpo, M.C., Aguiar, E.C., 2020. How self-expressive benefits relate to buying a hybrid car as a green product. Journal of Cleaner Production 252, 119859.
[67] Poole, A., Ball, L.J., 2005. Eye tracking in human-computer interaction and usability research: Current status and future. Prospects”, Chapter in C. Ghaoui (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction. Pennsylvania: Idea Group. Idea Group Inc, Pennsylvania.
[68] Rana, J., Paul, J., 2017. Consumer behavior and purchase intention for organic food: A review and research agenda. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 38, 157–165.
[69] Roddy, G., Cowan, C.A., Hutchinson, G., 1996. Consumer Attitudes and Behaviour to Organic Foods in Ireland. Journal of International Consumer Marketing 9, 41–63.
[70] Ruiz de Maya, S., López-López, I., Munuera, J.L., 2011. Organic food consumption in Europe: International segmentation based on value system differences. Ecological Economics 70, 1767–1775.
[71] Saunders, M.N.K., Lewis, P., Thornhill, A., 2009. Research methods for business students, 5th ed. ed. Prentice Hall, New York.
[72] Schifferstein, H.N.J., Oude Ophuis, P.A.M., 1998. Health-related determinants of organic food consumption in The Netherlands. Food Quality and Preference, Sensometric Workshop 9, 119–133.
[73] Sobhanifard, Y., 2018. Hybrid modelling of the consumption of organic foods in Iran using exploratory factor analysis and an artificial neural network. British Food Journal 120, 44–58.
[74] Sultan, P., Tarafder, T., Pearson, D., Henryks, J., 2020. Intention-behaviour gap and perceived behavioural control-behaviour gap in theory of planned behaviour: moderating roles of communication, satisfaction and trust in organic food consumption. Food Quality and Preference 81, 103838.
[75] Tanner, C., Wölfing Kast, S., 2003. Promoting sustainable consumption: Determinants of green purchases by Swiss consumers. Psychology & Marketing 20, 883–902. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.10101
[76] Tanoubi, I., Tourangeau, M., Sodoké, K., Perron, R., Drolet, P., Bélanger, M.-È., Morris, J., Ranger, C., Paradis, M.-R., Robitaille, A., Georgescu, M., 2021. Comparing the Visual Perception According to the Performance Using the Eye-Tracking Technology in High-Fidelity Simulation Settings. Behavioral Sciences 11, 31.
[77] Teng, C.-C., Wang, Y.-M., 2015. Decisional factors driving organic food consumption: Generation of consumer purchase intentions. British Food Journal 117, 1066–1081.
[78] Thøgersen, J., de Barcellos, M.D., Perin, M.G., Zhou, Y., 2015. Consumer buying motives and attitudes towards organic food in two emerging markets: China and Brazil. International Marketing Review 32, 389–413.
[79] Tsai, H.-H., Cheng, M.-J., Hung, S.-W., He, D.-S., Wang, W.-S., 2015. A study of organic food consumption behavior using the decomposed theory of planned behavior, in: 2015 Portland International Conference on Management of Engineering and Technology (PICMET). Presented at the 2015 Portland International Conference on Management of Engineering and Technology (PICMET), pp. 2509–2515.
[80] Van Doorn, J., Verhoef, P.C., 2015. Drivers of and Barriers to Organic Purchase Behavior. Journal of Retailing 91, 436–450.
[81] Van Huy, L., Chi, M.T.T., Lobo, A., Nguyen, N., Long, P.H., 2019. Effective Segmentation of Organic Food Consumers in Vietnam Using Food-Related Lifestyles. Sustainability 11, 1237.
[82] Van Loo, E.J., Grebitus, C., Nayga Jr., R.M., Verbeke, W., Roosen, J., 2018. On the Measurement of Consumer Preferences and Food Choice Behavior: The Relation Between Visual Attention and Choices. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 40, 538–562.
[83] Vassallo, M., Scalvedi, M.L., Saba, A., 2016. Investigating psychosocial determinants in influencing sustainable food consumption in Italy. International Journal of Consumer Studies 40, 422–434.
[84] VietnamFinance, 2020. VECOM: Tốc độ tăng trưởng TMĐT năm 2020 sẽ trên 30%, quy mô vượt 15 tỷ USD [WWW Document]. VietnamFinance. URL https://vietnamfinance.vn/news-20180504224245201.htm (accessed 2.15.24).
[85] Wang, X., Pacho, F., Liu, J., Kajungiro, R., 2019. Factors Influencing Organic Food Purchase Intention in Developing Countries and the Moderating Role of Knowledge. Sustainability 11, 209.
[86] Wu, S.-I., Chen, J.-Y., 2014. A Model of Green Consumption Behavior Constructed by the Theory of Planned Behavior. IJMS 6, p119.
[87] Yazdanpanah, M., Forouzani, M., 2015. Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour to predict Iranian students’ intention to purchase organic food. Journal of Cleaner Production 107, 342–352.
[88] Yiridoe, E.K., Bonti-Ankomah, S., Martin, R.C., 2005. Comparison of consumer perceptions and preference toward organic versus conventionally produced foods: A review and update of the literature. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 20, 193–205.
[89] Zhou, Y., Thøgersen, J., Ruan, Y., Huang, G., 2013. The moderating role of human values in planned behavior: the case of Chinese consumers’ intention to buy organic food. Journal of Consumer Marketing 30, 335–344.