臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本研究報告由全民英檢初級寫作測驗審定為四個級分下，在台灣以英語為外語學習者(寫作樣本的字彙使用情況調查。運用由台灣語言能力測驗中心所提供四個級分中的 100 篇文章來建立一套學習者寫作語料庫，包含7,635個單字。再依此 100 篇文章的四個寫作級分將其分配成四個次類別。採用線上詞法剖析軟體Lextutor來分析台灣以英語為外語學習者的詞法各細項詞彙知識。
結果指出，全民英檢高級分的受試者優於低級分者，具有使用更多變化字彙的能力。此外，研究發現程度低的受試者較受限於使用基本口語頻率最高的前1,000字。台灣以英語為外語學習者在未來計劃提高英語程度及在學術素養有所突破，需要具備各種字彙的變化和更廣泛使用各級字彙的能力。對於英語教師來說，教育學的涵義應運而生，以滿足語言弱勢學生的學習需求為要務。

This thesis reports on the investigation of vocabulary use in EFL test takers’ writing samples across four quality standards, determined by General English Proficiency Test elementary level writing test in Taiwan. One hundred short essays, provided by the Language Training and Testing Center (LTTC), Taiwan, were used to create a learner writing corpus of 7,635 running words. The 100 writing samples were later divided into 4 sub categories based on their 4 quality standards. Online lexical profiler Lextutor was used to generate various aspects of lexical knowledge of EFL learners in Taiwan.
The results suggested that writers of GEPT beginning level test with high quality standard outperformed those who were rated with lower quality standard when it came to the ability of deploying a wider variety of words. Also, lower proficient writers were found to have more constraint on the use of the first basic spoken 1,000 most frequent words , indicated by VocabProfiler Kids (on Lextutor). EFL learners in Taiwan who plan to advance their level of English proficiency and who are ambitious in academic literacy are suggested to equip themselves with a better command of word use and a wider variety of word choice. Pedagogical implications emerged for EFL teachers to address the language learning needs of linguistically challenged students.

摘要 i
ABSTRACT ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES ix

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Purpose of the Study 2
1.3 Research Questions 3
1.4 Definition of Terms 4
1.5 Organization of the Study 6

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 The Role of Vocabulary in EFL Education 8
2.2 Vocabulary and Writing 9
2.4 Empirical Studies on the Relationship between Vocabulary and Writing 11
2.4.1 Non-native English Speaking Students at University: Lexical Richness and Academic Success: Douglas (2010) 11
2.4.2 The Breadth and Depth of Vocabulary Use in EFL learners’ writing: Huang (2010) 12
2.4.3 The Relationship between Lexical Frequency Profiling Measures and Rater Judgement of Writing on General English Proficiency: Douglas (2016) 13
2.4.4 The Transition from Early Literacy to Academic Literacy: Roessingh, Douglas, and Wojtalewicz (2017) 14
2.5 The Rationale of Current Study 16

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design 18
3.2 Settings and Participants 19
3.3 Instrument 20
3.3.1 GEPT 20
3.3.2 Vocabulary Profiler-kids (VP--kids) 23
3.3.3 Lextutor Vocabulary Profiler-classic (VP-classic) 32
3.3.4 Statistical Product and Service Solutions 22 (SPSS) 35
3.4 Data Collection Procedure 36
3.5 Data Analysis 37

CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 38
4.1 Analysis of Research Question One 38
4.2 Analysis of Research Question Two 50
4.3 Discussion 57

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION 58
5.1 Major Findings 58
5.1.1 The Salient Lexical Features in GEPT Elementary Level Test Essays across Four Quality Standards 58
5.1.2 The Academic Lexical Usages That Distinguish Good Writers from Weaker Ones in the GEPT Elementary Level Test Essays That Further Provide Insights into the Writing Features 60
5.2 Pedagogical Implications 61
5.3 Limitations of the Study 64
5.4 Suggestions for Future Studies 65

REFERENCE 68
APPENDIX A 76

Anderson, L. W., Bloom, B. S., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing. New York: Longman. (Original work published 1977)
Astika, G. G. (1993). Analytical Assessments of Foreign Students' Writing. RELC Journal, 24(1), 61-70.
Azodi, N., Karimi, F., & Vaezi, R. (2014). Measuring the Lexical Richness of Productive Vocabulary in Iranian EFL University Students’ Writing Performance. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(9), 1837-1849.
Barker, F. (2013). Corpus-based testing. In C.A. Chapelle (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics (pp.1360-1366). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Barker, F., & Taylor, L (2008). Using corpora for language assessment. In Hornberger, N.H. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Language and Education (pp.241-254). New York: Springer.
Beukelman, D., Jones, R., & Rowan, M. (1989). Frequency of word usage by nondisabled peers in integrated preschool classrooms. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 5(4), 243-248.
Biemiller, A., & Slonim, N. (2001). Estimating root word vocabulary growth in normative and advantaged populations: Evidence for a common sequence of vocabulary acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(3), 498–520.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. New York: Longmans, Green.
Carless, D (2007). Learning-oriented assessment: Conceptual bases and practical implications. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 44(1), 57-66.
Chamot, A.U. (1981). Application of second language acquisition research to the bilingual classroom. National Clearhouse for Bilingual Education, 8, 2-9.
Chen, Y. (2002). The problem of university EFL writing in Taiwan. The Korean TESOL Journal, 5 (1), 1-22.
Cobb, T. (2020). VP-Kids v.1.1 [computer program]. Accessed June 27, 2020 at https://www.lextutor.ca/vp/kids/
Cobb,T. (2020). Web VP Classic v.4 [computer program]. Accessed June 27, 2020 at http://www.lextutor.ca/vp/ ], an adaptation of Heatley, Nation & Coxhead's (2002) Range.
Cobb, T., & Horst, M. (2001). Reading academic English: Carrying learners across the lexical threshold. Research Perspectives on English for Academic Purposes, 315-329.
Collier, V., & Thomas, W.P. (1995). Language minority student achievement and progress effectiveness. Research summary on ongoing study. Fairfox, V.A.: George Mason University.
Corcoran, J. (2005). Meanings of word: type-occurrence-token. Bulletin of Symbolic Logic 11, 117.
Corson, D. (1997). The learning and use of academic English words. Language Learning, 47(4), 671-718.
Coxhead, A. (2000). A new Academic Word List. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213-238.
Cummins, J. (1979). Cognitive/Academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19, 121-129.
Cummins, J. (1981). Empirical and theoretical underpinnings of bilingual education. Journal of Education, 163(1), 16-29.
Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. Schooling and Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework (pp.3-49). Los Angeles, CA: Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center, California State University
Cummins, J. (1983). Bilingualism and special education: Program and pedagogical Issues. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6(4), 373-386.
Cummins, J. (2017). BICS and CALP: Empirical and theoretical status of the distinction. Literacies and Language Education (pp.59-71). (Original work published 1988)
Cummins, J. P. (1979). Language functions and cognitive processing. Simultaneous and Successive Cognitive Processes (pp.175-185).
Douglas, S. R. (2010). Non-native English speaking students at university: Lexical richness and academic success (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
Douglas, S. R. (2016). The relationship between lexical frequency profiling measures and rater judgements of spoken and written general English language proficiency on the CELPIP-General Test. TESL Canada Journal, 32(9), 43-64.
Ebrahimi, A.B. (2019). Measuring productive collocational knowledge of the most frequent words. Int J Appl Linguist, 29, 30– 43
Engber, C. A. (1995). The relationship of lexical proficiency to the quality of ESL compositions. Journal of Second Language Writing, 4(2), 139-155.
Fenson, L., Marchman, V. A., Thal, D. J., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J. S., & Bates, E. (2007). MacArthur-Bates communicative development inventories: User's guide and technical manual (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
Fried-Oken, M., & More, L. (1992). An initial vocabulary for nonspeaking preschool children based on developmental and environmental language sources. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 8(1), 41-56.
Gallagher, E. (2008). Equal rights to the curriculum: Many languages, one message. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Genesee, F., Lindholm-Leary, K., Saunders, W. M., & Christian, D. (Eds.). (2006). Educating English language learners: A synthesis of research evidence. Cambridge University Press.
Gentry, J. R., McNeel, J., & Wallace-Nesler, V. (2012). Getting to the core of writing. essential lessons for every fourth grade student. Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education.
Grobe, W. J. (1981). Improving writing through student—teacher interaction. Middle School Journal, 12(2), 20-21.
Hansen, M. H. (1999). Lessons in being Chinese: Minority education and ethnic identity in Southwest China. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Heatley, A., Nation, I.S.P. & Coxhead, A. (2002). RANGE and FREQUENCY programs. Retrieved June 27, 2020, from http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/staff/paul-nation.aspx .
Huang, M.C. (2010). A corpus-based study on vocabulary use in the online speed writing of college EFL Learners in Taiwan. (Unpublished master’s thesis). National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung.
Hyland, K., & Bondi, M. (2006). Academic discourse across disciplines. Germany: Peter Lang.
Karakoç, D., & Köse, G.D. (2017). The impact of vocabulary knowledge on reading, writing and proficiency scores of EFL learners. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies , 13 (1) , 352-378.
Krahnke, K. J., Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. D. (1985). The natural approach: language acquisition in the classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 19(3), 591.
Laufer, B. (1998). The Development of Passive and Active Vocabulary in a Second Language: Same or Different? Applied Linguistics, 19(2), 255-271.
Laufer, B., & Nation, I. (1995). Vocabulary size and use: Lexical richness in L2 written production.
Lee, S. (2014). Korean EFL university students' English vocabulary size and their writing proficiency. English Curriculum Education, 13(2), 21-43.
Linnarud, M. (1986). Lexis in composition: A performance analysis of Swedish learners' written English. Lund: CWK Gleerup.
Lund, K., & Burgess, C. (1996). Producing high-dimensional semantic spaces from lexical co-occurrence. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 1996, 28(2), 203-208
Marvin, C., Beukelman, D., & Bilyeu, D. (1994). Vocabulary-use patterns in preschool children: Effects of context and time sampling. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 10(4), 224-236.
Meara, P. (2005). Lexical frequency profiles: A Monte Carlo analysis. Applied Linguistics, 26(1), 26-47.
Moe, A. J., Hopkins, C. J., & Rush, R. T. (1982). The vocabulary of first-grade children. Springfield, IL: C.C. Thomas.
Muncie, J. (2002). Process writing and vocabulary development: Comparing lexical frequency profiles across drafts. System, 30, 225-235.
Murphy, H. (1957). The spontaneous speaking vocabulary of children in primary grades. Journal of Education, 140(2), 2-105.
Nation, I.. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening?. Canadian Modern Language Review. 63(1). 59-81.
Nation, P. (2014). How much input do you need to learn the most frequent 9,000 words? Reading in a Foreign Language, 26(2), 1-16.
Nation, I.S.P. (2016). Making and Using Word Lists for Language Learning and Testing. Armsterdam: John Benjamins.
Rodney, D., Sénéchal, M., & Ouellette, G. (2006). The misunderstood giant: On the predictive role of early vocabulary to future reading. In Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 2, pp. 173-182). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Roessingh, H. (2005). BICS-CALP: An Introduction for some, a review for others. TESL Canada Journal, 23(2), 91.
Roessingh, H. (2010). Vocabulary profiling of oral and written discourse: An assessment tool for working with ELLs K–12. Teaching English Language Learners: Paths to Success: Number 5 in a Series of Monographs, 417–441.
Roessingh, H. (2014). Teachers’ roles in designing meaningful tasks for mediating language learning through the use of ICT: A reflection on authentic learning for young ELLs. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 40(1), 1-25..
Roessingh, H., & Elgie, S. (2009). Early Language and Literacy Development Among Young English Language Learners: Preliminary Insights from a Longitudinal Study. TESL Canada Journal, 26(2), 24-45.
Roessingh, H., Douglas, S., & Wojtalewicz, B. (2017). Lexical standards for expository writing at Grade 3: The transition from early literacy to academic literacy. Language and Literacy, 18(3), 123-144.
Schmitt, N. (2010). An introduction to applied linguistics (pp. 34-52). London: Hodder Education.
Schmitt, N., & Schmitt, D. (2012). A reassessment of frequency and vocabulary size in L2 vocabulary teaching. Language Teaching, 47(4), 484-503.
Shuy, R. (1981). A holistic view of language. Research in the Teaching of English, 15, 101–111.
Stæhr, L. S. (2008). Vocabulary size and the skills of listening, reading and writing. Language Learning Journal, 36(2), 139-152.
Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360-405.
Stemach, J., & Williams, W. B. (1988). Word express: The first 2500 words of spoken English. Novato, CA: Academic Therapy Publications.
Thomas, W.P., & Collier, V.P. (1997). School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students. Washington DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. [Electronic version: http://www.ncela.gwu.edu]
Tsedryk, A., & Doe, C. (2019). The description, measurement and pedagogy of words. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Viera, R. T., (2017). Vocabulary knowledge in the production of written texts: a case study on EFL language learners. Revista Tecnológica-ESPOL, 30(3), 89-105.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Interaction between Learning and Development. In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.), Mind and Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes (pp. 79-91). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Webb, S. (2008). Receptive and productive vocabulary sizes Of L2 learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30(01). https://doi.org/10.1017/s0272263108080042
West, M. (1953). A General Service List of English Words. London: Longman, Green & Co.
Wu, J. R. (2012). GEPT and English Language Teaching and Testing in Taiwan. Language Assessment Quarterly, 9(1), 11-25.
Zhai, L. (2016). A study on Chinese EFL learners’ vocabulary usage in writing. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 7(4), 752.