抗生素和重金屬是水生環境中經常檢測到的污染物。 對水生生態系統的影響和對人體免疫系統的干擾只是抗生素殘留因其潛在負面影響而引發的嚴重健康和環境問題的一小部分。 此外，重金屬在體內長期蓄積，會導致腎功能障礙、肺炎、骨質疏鬆、血壓升高、心肌炎功能障礙，甚至死亡。 抗生素和重金屬造成的水污染對其從水源中的去除提出了重大挑戰。 吸附法因其操作簡便、污染物去除能力高而被廣泛應用於去除水中這兩種污染物。 在吸附劑的類型中，源自農業廢棄物生物質的生物炭是一種常見的吸附劑，已在先前的研究中報告。
在這項研究中，從學名為馬尾藻的褐海藻中提取的改性生物炭在去除水溶液中的抗生素和重金屬方面表現出了優異的效果。 透過 ZnCl2 化學活化劑浸漬半葉馬尾藻合成的改質生物炭 ZBAB 對水溶液中的抗生素環丙沙星 (CIP) 具有優異的吸附能力。 此組合成功生產出具有獨特理化特性的介孔生物炭。 ZBAB在各種參數影響下均具有較高的CIP吸附容量（190 - 300 mg·g-1）。 靜電相互作用、π-π EDA 相互作用、孔隙填充和氫鍵是整個表面表徵技術中提出的吸附機制。
以褐藻馬尾藻為碳源，透過高溫熱解和摻雜氧化鐵顆粒（Fe-BAB）合成磁性多孔生物炭。 Fe-BAB表現出優異的Cu(II)吸附能力（105.3 mg·g−1）。 Fe-BAB表面存在多種含氧官能基，包括-COOH和-OH，能夠提供優異的重金屬去除性能。 透過使用磁鐵，Fe-BAB 可以方便地從溶液中分離出來，以便進一步使用。 Fe-BAB 上 Cu(II) 的吸附是由多種吸附機製造成的。 吸附效率高、分離過程簡單是利用磁性褐藻生物炭去除重金屬的顯著優勢。
此外，還透過將褐藻馬尾藻與活化劑KHCO3以1:3的質量比浸泡並在700 0C的溫度下加熱，製成了一種名為KBAB-3的新型材料。 研究結果表明，KBAB-3在不同環境條件下對水介質中60~160 mg·g-1範圍內的Cr(VI)具有吸附能力。 此外，KBAB-3具有良好的分離性能，因此在多次重複使用後仍能保持較高的Cr(VI)去除效率。 整體而言，KBAB-3這種新型吸附劑未來可用於有效去除各種水源中的Cr(VI)。

Antibiotics and heavy metals are pollutants that are frequently detected in the aquatic environment. Effects on the aquatic ecosystem and the disturbance of the human immune system are only a few of the severe health and environmental issues that antibiotic residues have sparked due to their potential negative impacts. Besides that, the long-term accumulation of heavy metals in the body can cause renal dysfunction, pneumonitis, osteoporosis, increased blood pressure, myocarditis dysfunctions, and even death. Water pollution by antibiotics and heavy metals poses significant challenges to their removal from water sources. The adsorption method is widely applied in removing these two pollutants in water due to its ease of operation and high pollutant removal capacity. Among the types of adsorbents, biochar derived from biomass of agricultural wastes is a common adsorbent that has been reported in previous studies.
In this study, modified biochar derived from brown marine algae with the scientific name Sargassum hemiphyllum has shown excellent results for antibiotics and heavy metals removal in aqueous solution. The modified biochar ZBAB, which was synthesized by impregnating Sargassum hemiphyllum with a ZnCl2 chemical activator, gave the outstanding adsorption capacity of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin (CIP) in aqueous solution. The combination successfully produced mesoporous biochar with unique physicochemical characteristics. The ZBAB yielded a high CIP adsorption capacity (190 - 300 mg·g-1) under various parameter effects. Electrostatic interactions, π-π EDA interactions, pore filling, and hydrogen bonding are the adsorption mechanisms proposed throughout the surface characterization techniques.
Brown algae Sargassum Hemiphyllum was used as a carbon source to synthesize magnetic porous biochar through high-temperature pyrolysis and doping of iron oxide particles (Fe-BAB). Fe-BAB exhibited superior Cu(II) adsorption capacity (105.3 mg·g−1). There are several oxygen-containing functional groups on the surface of Fe-BAB, including –COOH and –OH, which are capable of providing superb heavy metal removal performance. By using a magnet, Fe-BAB can be conveniently separated from the solution and made ready for further use. The multiple adsorption mechanisms are responsible for Cu(II) adsorption on Fe-BAB. High adsorption efficiency and a simple separation process are significant advantages of using magnetic brown algal biochar for heavy metal removal.
In addition, a novel material named KBAB-3 is also created by soaking the brown algae Sargassum hemiphyllum with the activator KHCO3 in a mass ratio of 1:3 and heating at a temperature of 700 0C. Research results showed that KBAB-3 has the ability to adsorb Cr(VI) in the range of 60 - 160 mg·g-1 in aqueous media under different environmental conditions. Furthermore, KBAB-3 has accessible separation properties, so it can maintain high Cr(VI) removal efficiency after many reuses. Overall, KBAB-3, a novel adsorbent, can be applied to effectively remove Cr(VI) from various water sources in the future.

ABSTRACT iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, UNITS AND SYMBOLS viii
CONTENTS x
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST OF TABLES xvi
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. The statement of the research 1
1.2. Research objectives 5
1.3. Scopes 5
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEWS 7
2.1. Overview of biochar 7
2.2. Overview of brown algae 9
2.2.1. Species in brown algae 9
2.2.2. General studies of antibiotics and heavy metals removal by species in brown algae 10
2.3. Overview of Sargassum hemiphyllum 13
2.4. Overview of Ciprofloxacin (CIP) 14
2.5. Overview of Copper (Cu) 17
2.6. Overview of Chromium (Cr) 20
2.7. Overview of adsorption technology 22
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 24
3.1. Overview of research 24
3.2. Research contents 25
3.2.1. Chemicals 25
3.2.2. Characterization and analytical methods 26
3.2.3. Phase 1: Pyrolysis of marine algae for biochar production for adsorption of Ciprofloxacin from aqueous solutions 26
3.2.4. Phase 2: Magnetic biochar derived from macroalgal Sargassum hemiphyllum for highly efficient adsorption of Cu(II): Influencing factors and reusability 28
3.2.5. Phase 3: KHCO3-activated high surface area biochar derived from brown algae: a case study for efficient adsorption of Cr(VI) in aqueous solution 30
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 33
4.1. Phase 1 33
4.1.1. Characterization of biochars 33
4.1.2. Adsorption isotherms 39
4.1.3. Adsorption kinetics 44
4.1.4. Influence of pH on CIP adsorption capacity on ZBAB 47
4.1.5. Adsorption capacity of other antibiotics on ZBAB 49
4.1.6. CIP adsorption capacity of ZBAB in different water sources 50
4.1.7. Recyclability of ZBAB for CIP adsorption 51
4.1.8. Adsorption mechanism 52
4.2. Phase 2 54
4.2.1. Characterization of materials 54
4.2.2. Adsorption isotherm 63
4.2.3. Adsorption kinetic 68
4.2.4. Effect of pH on Cu(II) adsorption on Fe-BAB 71
4.2.5. Other heavy metals adsorption capacity on Fe-BAB 73
4.2.6. Recyclability of Fe-BAB for Cu(II) adsorption 74
4.2.7. Application of Fe-BAB in Cu(II) adsorption in real water sources 76
4.3. Phase 3. 78
4.3.1. Characterization of biochars 78
4.3.2. Adsorption isotherm 90
4.3.3. Effect of pH on Cr(VI) adsorption capacity onto KBAB-3 95
4.3.4. Adsorption kinetic 97
4.3.5. Optimization of Cr(VI) adsorption 100
4.3.6. Influence of major cations and anions on Cr(VI) adsorption of KBAB-3 104
4.3.7. Cr(VI) adsorption capacity on different sources of water 108
4.3.8. Recyclability of KBAB-3 for Cr(VI) adsorption 110
4.3.9. Adsorption mechanism 111
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 115
5.1. Conclusions 115
5.2. Future scope 117
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