臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

研究背景：全球老年人口的持續攀升，老年人的生心理健康議題逐漸受到重視，其中孤獨感是造成心理健康疾病的重要風險因素之一。現今處於COVID-19疫情世代，老年人為了減少染病風險，多選擇留在家中躲避疫情，然而卻可能面臨到社交隔離，或者疫情所造成的生活壓力上升，使孤獨感惡化。社會支持對老年人的身、心健康扮演重要角色，當維持良好的社會支持可協助老年人維持心理健康，也可有效改善壓力及調節孤獨感。然而，目前國內缺少文獻探討，在COVID-19疫情世代下，社區老人的生活壓力、社會支持及孤獨感的現況及影響因子。
研究目的：本研究的主要目的為，探討COVID-19疫情世代下，社區老人的生活壓力、社會支持、孤獨感及其相關性，並分析孤獨感預測因子。
研究方法：本研究採用橫斷性研究法，於嘉義縣與臺南市的鄉村及都市型社區，以方便抽樣，取樣符合收案條件的社區老人，共收案114位老人參與研究，本研究社區老人平均年齡為74.42歲。使用之研究工具包含「基本資料問卷」、「生活壓力量表」、「社會支持量表」、「孤獨感量表」，評估社區老人的生活壓力、社會支持與孤獨感的現況。
資料分析：所有資料將輸入SPSS 22.0統計軟體並進行分析。根據研究問題，採用的分析方法包含獨立樣本t檢定、單因子變異數、皮爾森積差相關分析、多元線性迴歸。
研究結果：社區老人的生活壓力平均分數為45.15分(SD=12.17)。社會支持平均分數為136.97分(SD=30.87)。孤獨感平均分數為25.15分(SD=5.71)。社區老人的生活壓力，在經濟來源、感染新冠肺炎擔心程度、視力及聽力功能、以及與自己過去一年的身體健康狀況相比，自覺現況身體健康之個體性差異變項中，有顯著性的差異。社會支持在視力功能、以及日常生活需協助程度之個體性差異變項中，呈現顯著性的差異。而孤獨感在有無子女、經濟來源、施打疫苗狀況、以及施打疫苗後是否會降低擔心之個體性差異變項中，也有顯著性的差異。社會支持與孤獨感間呈現顯著負相關，而社會支持及有無子女，對孤獨感具有預測功能。
結論與討論：本研究結果顯示，於COVID-19疫情世代下，社區老人的社會支持與孤獨感呈現顯著負相關，且有無子女及社會支持對孤獨感具有預測能力。根據研究結果，建議臨床醫療人員、以及衛政單位，在疫情期間需評估社區老人的社會支持與生活壓力外，亦需重視COVID-19防疫措施，以減緩疫情帶來的孤獨感發生。

Background: With the continuing growth of the global aging population, more attention is being paid to the mental health of the elderly. Loneliness is one of the major risk factors for mentioning mental health. As the era of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is pandemic, the community-dwelling elderly who choose to stay at home to avoid the pandemic and reduce the risk of infection might face social isolation and increased life stress which augments the feeling of loneliness. Social support plays an essential role in the physical and mental health of the elderly. Maintaining appropriate social support can help preserve mental health, effectively improve stress, and reduce loneliness in the elderly. However, in Taiwan, few studies have investigated the current mental health status and factors impacting life stress, social support, and loneliness in the elderly during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Purpose: In the present study, the primary objective was to evaluate life stress, social support, and loneliness and examining their correlation with another factor in the community-dwelling elderly as well as analyze the predictors of loneliness in the COVID-19 era.
Methods: The present cross-sectional study included the rural and urban residential communities of Chiayi and Tainan. A total of 114 elderly individuals with a mean age of 74.42 years were included in the study. Several research tools including the Basic Data Questionnaire, Life Stress Scale, Social Support Scale, and Loneliness Scale were used to evaluate the status of life pressure, social support, and loneliness of the community-dwelling elderly.
Analyze: All data were analyzed using the SPSS 22.0 statistical software. Depending on the study parameter, the analysis methods used included independent-sample t test, one-way analysis of variance, Pearson’s product-moment correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression analysis.
Results: The mean (±standard deviation) scores for Life Stress, Social Support, and Loneliness Scales were 45.15 ± 12.17, 136.97 ± 30.87, and 25.15 ± 5.71, respectively, of the elderly individuals in the community. The level of life stress of the elderly showed significant difference in the analysis with the following individual factors as variates: economic status, level of concern regarding contracting COVID-19, visual and hearing functions, and perceived physical health compared with their health status in the previous year. The status of social support of the elderly showed significant difference in the analysis with the following individual factors as variates: visual function and the degree of assistance required in daily life. The degree of loneliness of the elderly showed significant difference in the analysis with the following individual factors as variates: parenting status, economic status, vaccination status, and whether the concern over infection would be reduced after vaccination. There was a significant negative correlation between social support and loneliness, and social support and parenting status were predictors of loneliness.
Conclusions: The study results revealed the presence of a significant negative correlation between social support and loneliness in the elderly during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, parenting status and social support could predict the feeling of loneliness. These findings suggest that clinical medical staff and health authorities should evaluate social support and life stress in the community-dwelling elderly during the COVID-19 pandemic and that attention should be paid during the implementation of pandemic prevention measures to reduce loneliness caused by the pandemic.

誌謝 I
中文摘要 II
目次 VI
表目次 VIII
圖目次 IX
第一章 緒論 1
第一節 問題背景及重要性 1
第二節 問題陳述 8
第三節 研究目的 9
第四節 概念性研究架構 10
第五節 研究問題 12
第六節 名詞定義 12
第二章 文獻探討 14
第一節 生活壓力相關概念與意義 14
第二節 社會支持相關概念與意義 19
第三節 孤獨感相關概念與意義 24
第四節 生活壓力與社會支持之相關性 29
第五節 生活壓力與孤獨感之相關性 30
第六節 社會支持與孤獨感之相關性 31
第七節 COVID-19疫情世代下，生活壓力、社會支持與孤獨感的相關 32
第三章 研究方法 33
第一節 研究設計 33
第二節 研究對象及樣本選取 33
第三節 資料收集方法及工具信效度 35
第四節 資料收集步驟 38
第五節 研究倫理 39
第六節 資料分析 40
第四章 研究結果 42
第一節 社區老人的個體性差異資料分析 42
第二節 社區老人的生活壓力、社會支持與孤獨感現況 52
第三節 社區老人的生活壓力、社會支持與孤獨感之相關性 55
第四節 社區老人生活壓力、社會支持與孤獨感於個體差異性之分析 56
第五節 社區老人孤獨感的預測因子 63
第五章 討論 65
第一節 研究問題結果之分析與討論 65
第二節 研究限制 79
第三節 結論與建議 80
附錄 84
附錄一 研究工具使用同意書 84
附錄二 人體試驗委員會同意書 87
附錄三 研究工具 89
參考文獻 93
中文部分 93
西文部分 99

表目次
表4-1-1 社區老人的基本資料 44
表4-1-2 社區老人的身體健康狀態 46
表4-1-3 不同社區型態老人的基本資料 49
表4-1-4 不同社區型態老人的身體健康狀態 51
表4-2-1 社區老人的生活壓力、社會支持與孤獨感現況 54
表4-3-1 社區老人的生活壓力、社會支持與孤獨感之相關性 55
表4-4-1 生活壓力、社會支持與孤獨感依不同基本資料之比較 58
表4-4-2 生活壓力、社會支持與孤獨感在不同身體健康狀態之比較 62
表4-5-1 孤獨感之預測因子 64
 
圖目次
圖1-4 -1 研究架構 11

中文部分

中華民國內政部戶政司全球資訊網（2018）‧人口統計資料庫導覽‧https://www.ris.gov.tw/app/portal/674
內政部戶政司全球資訊網（2021）‧人口統計資料庫‧取自https://www.ris.gov.tw/app/portal/674
內政部營建署（2007）‧都市更新篇‧取自https://www.cpami.gov.tw/%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A%E5%85%AC%E9%96%8B/%E4%B8%BB%E5%8B%95%E5%85%AC%E9%96%8B%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%8C%87%E5%B0%8E%E6%96%87%E6%9B%B8/%E9%83%BD%E5%B8%82%E6%9B%B4%E6%96%B0%E7%AF%87/101-%E5%8D%81%E4%BA%8C%E5%8A%83.html
內政部營建署（2019）‧鄉村地區整體規劃專區‧取自https://www.cpami.gov.tw/%E7%87%9F%E5%BB%BA%E7%BD%B2%E5%AE%B6%E6%97%8F/%E7%87%9F%E5%BB%BA%E6%A5%AD%E5%8B%99/36-%E7%B6%9C%E5%90%88%E8%A8%88%E7%95%AB%E7%B5%84/34063-%E9%84%89%E6%9D%91%E5%9C%B0%E5%8D%80%E6%95%B4%E9%AB%94%E8%A6%8F%E5%8A%83%E5%B0%88%E5%8D%80.html
內政部營建署城鄉發展分署（2021）‧國土規劃地理資訊圖台‧取自http://nsp.tcd.gov.tw/ngis/
王仕圖、許俊才、林宏陽、陳柯玫（2020）‧屏東縣獨居老人生活狀況與長期照顧需求態度之探討‧人文社會科學研究，14（3），1－29。https://doi.org/10.6284/NPUSTHSSR.202009_14(3).1
石泱（2009）‧不同居住型態老人社會支持與生活適應影響因素之研究‧東吳社會工作學報，21，27－54。https://doi.org/10.29734/SJSW.200912.0002
江信男、林閔沛、柯慧貞（2005）‧台灣地區老人的生理疾病多寡、自覺生理健康、社會支持度與憂鬱嚴重度‧臨床心理學刊，2（1），11－22。
行政院農業委員會（2013）‧農業區域統計分析‧取自https://www.coa.gov.tw/ws.php?id=2447516
吳沄蓁、趙淑員（2011）‧社區獨居老人的健康需求、需求滿意度及影響因素探討－以彰化縣某鄉鎮為例‧弘光學報，63，44－64。http://doi.org/10.6615/HAR.201106.63.05
吳佳儀、李明濱、廖士程（2021）‧臺灣防疫「心」生活‧台灣醫學，25（3），365－372。https://doi.org/10.6320/FJM.202105_25(3).0008吳風鈴、陳慶餘、許志成、謝博生（2013）‧以衰弱症為導向的老人三段五級預防‧臺灣醫學，56（9），17－22。
吳舜堂、陳欽雨（2017）‧高齡長者社會支持、社會參與與活躍老化關係之研究‧福祉科技與服務管理學刊，5（4），331－352。https://doi.org/ 10.6283/JOCSG.201712_5(4).331
吳靜吉（1994）‧寂寞、害羞、愛‧台北：遠流。
呂岳霖（2005）‧國立台中師範學院學生生活壓力與因應策略之研究﹝未發表之碩士論文﹞‧國立台中師範學院國民教育學系。
李宗派（2007）‧老化概念(Ⅰ)：生物科學之老化理論‧臺灣老人保健學刊，3（2），1－24。https://doi.org/10.29797/TJGHR.200712.0001
李勉禛、陳志賢、丁原郁（2015）‧老人自由需求符合程度、社會支持與幸福感之相關研究‧大仁學報，46，75－100。
李政益、郭宏偉、許建邦（2021）‧COVID-19 疫苗接種後對國際疫情趨勢影響之評析‧疫情報導，37（11），153－174。https://doi.org/ 10.6524/EB.202106_37(11).0001
李新民（2015）‧空巢老人的主觀幸福感及其與社會支持之關聯‧社會與區域發展學報，4（2），1－34。
林千立、林美珍（2007）‧中文版寂寞量表之效度與信度研究-以老年人為例‧輔導與諮商學報，29（2），41－50。
林郁、王俊明（2011）‧銀髮族生命意義、生活壓力及憂鬱傾向之研究－以臺灣中部地區為例﹝未發表之碩士論文﹞‧南開科技大學福祉科技與服務研究所。
林麗味、許勻、蕭欣宜、黃國城、王香蘋、葉淑惠（2018）‧社區高齡者參與志願服務動機、社會支持及生活滿意度‧長庚護理，29（4），517－532。
花琳鈞、周宗翰、宮平百百子、陳品秀、黃琬婷（2020）‧高齡者之獨居與其影響‧臺灣老年學論壇，47，1－18。
邱懿瑩（2020）‧老年人社會參與、社會支持及生活品質之關係研究‧屏東大學體育，6，1－23。
凌千惠、傅光翊、黃荷瑄、姚慧萍、林宜慧、葉志嶸（2007）‧老年族群之憂鬱程度、社會支持程度與醫療服務使用之相關性‧中山醫學雜誌，18（2），201－215。http://doi.org/10.30096/CSMJ.200712.0005
張哲瑞、陳晶瑩（2021）‧老年患者的孤獨感：評估與治療‧臺灣老年醫學暨老年學會雜誌，16（1），1－13。https://doi.org/10.29461/TGGa.202102_16(1).0001
張素紅、楊美賞（1999）‧老人寂寞與其個人因素、自覺健康狀況、社會支持之相關研究‧高雄醫學科學雜誌，15，337－347。
張雪會、劉靜芸、黃茜莉、程景煜、李中一（2006）‧簡易視力篩檢表用於65歲以上老人之信度與效度評估‧台灣公共衛生雜誌，25（4），303－309。http://doi.org/10.6288/TJPH2006-25-04-07
曹維媛、林建志、許秀月（2014）‧社區老人社會支持與憂鬱相關之研究‧台灣老人保健學刊，10（2），167－187。
梁繼權、許詩典、陳晶瑩、陳慶餘（2002）‧都市與鄉村社區老人健康狀態‧台灣醫學，6（4），523－534。http://doi.org/10.6320/FJM.2002.6(4).07
莊淑姿（2001）‧台灣鄉村發展類型之研究﹝未發表之碩士論文﹞‧國立臺灣大學農業推廣學研究所。
許韶玲（1995）‧已婚女性研究生的壓力源、因應方式與因應效能之研究﹝未發表之碩士論文﹞‧國立彰化師範大學輔導研究所。
連雅棻、黃惠滿、蘇貞瑛（2007）‧社區獨居老人人格韌性、社會支持與生活滿意度相關性研究‧長期照顧雜誌，12（1），161－178。https://doi.org/10.6317/LTC.200807_12(2).0006
陳家駒（1988）‧壓力的因應與心理疾病的預防（下）‧諮商與輔導，26，2－5。
陳琇惠、林子宇（2012）‧老人社會支持與生活滿意度之研究－以南投縣為例‧人文社會科學研究，6（4），100－127。http://doi.org/10.6284/NPUSTHSSR.2012.6(4)6
陳彰惠、曾英芬、王興耀、李昭男（1994）‧産後憂鬱的盛行率和預測因子‧護理研究，2（2），263－274。https://doi.org/10.7081/NR.199409.0263
黃宜貞、王桂芸、陳金彌（2010）‧孤寂的概念分析‧護理雜誌，57（5），96－101。http://doi.org/10.6224/JN.57.5.96
黃源協（2005）‧正式照護對非正式網絡互動關係之影響：以原住民部落老人居家/送餐服務‧社會政策與社會工作學刊，9（1），163－198。https://doi.org/10.6785/SPSW.200506.0163
黃誌坤、黃明鳳（2009）‧高齡者上網環境友善情形之調查研究‧社區發展季刊，125，485－504。
黃寶園（2010）‧社會支持在壓力反應歷程中的中介效果‧中華心理衛生學刊，23（3），401－436。https://doi.org/10.30074/FJMH.201009_23(3).0003
楊均典（2001）‧住院之精神分裂症患者靈性、寂寞感及希望之相關探討﹝未發表之碩士論文﹞‧慈濟大學護理學研究所。
楊曼華、侯純仁（2021）‧運用芳香療法改善日照中心衰弱老人憂鬱情緒與孤寂感之效果探討‧護理雜誌，68（3），54－63。https://doi.org/10.6224/JN.202106_68(3).08
溫綵涵、阮祺文（2019）‧工具性與情緒性社會支持對台灣地區中老年人憂鬱傾向關聯性探討‧弘光學報，84，1－20。https://doi.org/ 10.6615/HAR.201909_(84).0001
葉重新（1995）‧台灣中部地區國小初任校長工作壓力之研究‧台北：心理。
葉淑娟、施智婷、莊智薰、蔡淑鳳（2004）‧社會支持系統與老人生活滿意度之關係－以高雄市老人為例‧中山管理評論，12（2），399－427。https://doi.org/10.6160/2004.06.06
熊曉芳（1999）‧社區獨居老人健康狀況、社會支持及相關因素探討﹝未發表之碩士論文﹞‧台灣大學護理研究所。
趙坤郁（2006）‧社區健康營造工作手冊‧行政院衛生署國民健康局，1-52。
趙明玲、陳威廷、汪素敏（2018）‧老年糖尿病人自我效能、社會支持與自我照顧行為相關之探討‧台灣健康照顧研究學刊，18，1－12。
趙恩、陳國緯、李思賢（2021）‧台灣公民面對新冠肺炎疫情初期之焦慮症狀與防疫作為之趨勢‧台灣衛誌，40（1），83－96。https://doi.org/10.6288/TJPH.202102_40(1).109115
趙榮洲（2004）‧高齡化產品之按鍵壓力研究－以行動電話為例﹝未發表之碩士論文﹞‧國立雲林科技大學工程設計系。
廣梅芳（譯）（2012）‧生命週期完成式‧臺北：張老師文化，170-176。
樓家祺、王政彥（2021）‧台灣高齡學習者「自我調控學習」在社會支持與成功老化中介模式之驗證‧高雄師大學報，50，49－74。
歐秋萍（2013）‧澎湖社區老人社會支持、自覺健康、社會參與對生活品質之影響﹝未發表之碩士論文﹞‧國立澎湖科技大學服務業經營管理研究所。
衛生福利部中央健康保險署（2018）‧衛生福利部2025衛生福利政策白皮書暨原住民族專章‧取自https://www.mohw.gov.tw/cp-26-42978-1.html
衛生福利部疾病管制署（2021）‧COVID-19疫苗‧取自https://www.cdc.gov.tw/Category/List/P2pYv_BSNAzqDSK8Qhllew
衛生福利部疾病管制署（2021）‧嚴重特殊傳染性肺炎‧取自https://www.cdc.gov.tw/Disease/SubIndex/N6XvFa1YP9CXYdB0kNSA9A
衛生福利部國民健康署（2018）‧中老年身心社會生活狀況長期追蹤調查‧取自https://www.hpa.gov.tw/Pages/Detail.aspx?nodeid=242&pid=1282
衛生福利部統計處（2017）‧老人狀況調查‧取自https://dep.mohw.gov.tw/dos/cp-1767-38429-113.html
鄭政宗、賴昆宏（2007）‧台中地區長青學苑老人之社會支持, 孤寂感, 休閒活動參與及生命意義之研究‧朝陽學報，12，217－254。
盧俊吉、蕭崑杉、林如森、王春熙（2011）‧高齡者社會支持、休閒活動與心理健康關係之研究‧農業推廣文彙，56，101－110。http://doi.org/10.29743/AEA.201112.0031
蕭銘毅、李承運、黃湘雄、黃裕達、江信男、張芸瑄（2020）‧網路使用與年長者之憂鬱及幸福感之相關性探討－以中部社區據點為例‧醫學與健康期刊，9（2），73－83。
戴玉慈、Karen, S.、羅美芳（1995）‧最近生活經驗調查量表中文修訂版的心理測量學評估‧護理研究，3（3），235－245。https://doi.org/10.7081/NR.199509.0235
簡玉坤（2004）‧老年人心理壓力及因應之道：生物－心理－社會整合模式‧護理雜誌，51（3），11－14。http://doi.org/10.6224/JN.51.3.11
 
西文部分
Aartsen, M. & Jylhä, M. (2011). Onset of loneliness in older adults: results of a 28 year prospective study. European Journal of Ageing, 8(1), 31-38. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10433-011-0175-7
Abbey, A., Abramis, D. J., & Caplan, R. D. (1985). Effects of different sources of social support and social conflict on emotional well-being. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 6(2), 111-129. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp0602_2
Andersson, L. (1986). A model of estrangement-including a theoretical understanding of loneliness. Psychological Reports, 58(3), 683-695. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1986.58.3.683
Ano, G. G. & Vasconcelles, E. B. (2005). Religious coping and psychological adjustment to stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61(4), 461-480. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20049
Bai, Y., Bian, F., Zhang, L., & Cao, Y. (2020). The impact of social support on the health of the rural elderly in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(6), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062004
Banjongrewadee, M., Wongpakaran, N., Wongpakaran, T., Pipanmekaporn, T., Punjasawadwong, Y., & Mueankwan, S. (2020). The role of perceived stress and cognitive function on the relationship between neuroticism and depression among the elderly: a structural equation model approach. BMC psychiatry, 20(1), 25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2440-9
Barrera, M., Sandier, I. N., & Ramsay, T. B. (1981). Preliminary development of a scale of social support: studies on college students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9(4), 435-447. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00918174
Barrett, A. E. (1999). Social support and life satisfaction among the never married: examining the effects of age. Research on Aging, 21(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027599211003
Bayevsky, R. M., Ivanov, G. G., Chireykin, L. V., Gavrilushkin, A. P., Dovgalevsky, P. Y., Kukushkin, U. A., Mironova, T. F., Priluzkiy, D. A., Semenov, U. N., Fedorov, V. F., Fleishmann, A. N., & Medvedev, M. M. (2002). HRV analysis under the usage of different electrocardiography systems (Methodical recommendations). The Committee of Clinic Diagnostic Apparatus and The Committee of New Medical Techniques of Ministry of Health of Russia, protocol, 4.
Bernardes, S. F., Matos, M., & Goubert, L. (2017). Older adults' preferences for formal social support of autonomy and dependence in pain: development and validation of a scale. European Journal of Ageing, 14(3), 257-268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-017-0411-x
Beutel, M. E., Klein, E. M., Brähler, E., Reiner, I., Jünger, C., Michal, M., Wiltink, J., Wild, P. S., Münzel, T., Lackner, K. J., & Tibubos, A. N. (2017). Loneliness in the general population: prevalence, determinants and relations to mental health. BMC psychiatry, 17(1), 97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1262-x
Biggs, A., Brough, P., & Drummond, S. (2017). Lazarus and Folkman's psychological stress and coping theory. In C. L. Cooper & J. C. Quick (Eds), The handbook of stress and health: A guide to research and practice. (1st ed., pp. 351-364). John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Birditt, K. S., Newton, N. J., Cranford, J. A., & Webster, N. J. (2019). Chronic stress and negative marital quality among older couples: Associations with waist circumference. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 74(2), 318-328. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw112
Blazer, D. G. (1982). Social support and mortality in an elderly community population. American Journal of Epidemiology, 115(5), 684-694. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113351
Bøen, H., Dalgard, O. S., & Bjertness, E. (2012). The importance of social support in the associations between psychological distress and somatic health problems and socio-economic factors among older adults living at home: a cross sectional study. BMC geriatrics, 12, 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2318-12-27
Bondevik, M. & Skogstad, A. (1996). Loneliness among the oldest old, a comparison between residents living in nursing homes and residents living in the community. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 43(3), 181-197. https://doi.org/10.2190/9C14-NHUX-XQPL-GA5J
Campagne D. M. (2019). Stress and perceived social isolation (loneliness). Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 82, 192-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2019.02.007
Campisi, J., Kapahi, P., Lithgow, G. J., Melov, S., Newman, J. C., & Verdin, E. (2019). From discoveries in ageing research to therapeutics for healthy ageing. Nature, 571(7764), 183-192. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1365-2
Caplan, R. D. (1987). Person-environment fit theory and organizations: Commensurate dimensions, time perspectives, and mechanisms, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31(3), 248-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(87)90042-X
Chen, C. H. (1993). Effect of home visits and telephone contact on breastfeeding compliance in Taiwan. Maternal-Child Nursing Journal, 21(3), 82-90.
Chen, L., Alston, M., & Guo, W. (2019). The influence of social support on loneliness and depression among older elderly people in China: Coping styles as mediators. Journal of Community Psychology, 47(5), 1235-1245. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22185
Chen, Y., Yang, C. & Feng, S. (2019). The effect of social communication on life satisfaction among the rural elderly: A moderated mediation model. Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(3791), 1-13. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/ijerph16203791
Choi, E. Y., Farina, M. P., Wu, Q., & Ailshire, J. (2021). COVID-19 social distancing measures and loneliness among older adults. The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbab009
Chou, K. L. & Chi, I. (2004). Combined effect of vision and hearing impairment on depression in elderly Chinese. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19(9), 825–832. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.1174
Chruściel, P., Szczekala, K. M., Derewiecki, T., Jakubowska, K., Nalepa, D., Czekirda, M. E., Mianowana, V., & Czarkowska, M. (2018). Differences in the quality of life dependent on family status of the elderly living in rural areas - A cross-sectional survey. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine : AAEM, 25(3), 532-538. https://doi.org/10.26444/aaem/93501
Cihan, F. G. & Gökgöz Durmaz, F. (2021). Evaluation of COVID-19 phobia and the feeling of loneliness in the geriatric age group. International Journal of Clinical Practice, 75(6), e14089. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcp.14089
Cobb, S. (1976). Social support as a moderator of life stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38(5), .300-314.
Cohen, S. & Hoberman, H. M. (1983). Positive events and social supports as buffers of life change stress. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 13(2), 99-125. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1983.tb02325.x
Cohen, S. & Syme, S. L. (1985). Social support and health. Academic Press.
Cohen, S. & Williamson, G. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In S. Spacapan, & S. Oskamp (Eds.), The social psychology of health: Claremont symposium on applied social psychology (pp. 31-67). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Cohen, S. (2004). Social relationships and health. American Psychologist, 59(8), 676-684. http://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.8.676
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 24, 385-396. https://doi.org/ 10.2307/2136404
Colman, A. W. (2008). A dictionary of psychology(3 ed.). Oxford University Press.
Copel, L. C. (1988). Loneliness: A conceptual model. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Nursing, 26(1), 14-19.
Creswell, J. D., Irwin, M. R., Burklund, L. J., Lieberman, M. D., Arevalo, J. M., Ma, J., Breen, E. C., & Cole, S. W. (2012). Mindfulness-based stress reduction training reduces loneliness and pro-inflammatory gene expression in older adults: A small randomized controlled trial. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 26(7), 1095–1101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2012.07.006
Cutrona, C., Russell, D., & Rose, J. (1986). Social support and adaptation to stress by the elderly. Psychology and aging, 1(1), 47-54. https://doi.org/10.1037//0882-7974.1.1.47
Dai, Y., Zhang, C. Y., Zhang, B. Q., Li, Z., Jiang, C., & Huang, H. L. (2016). Social support and the self-rated health of older people: A comparative study in Tainan Taiwan and Fuzhou Fujian province. Medicine, 95(24), e3881. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000003881
de Jong-Gierveld, J. (1987). Developing and testing a model of loneliness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(1), 119-128. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.1.119
de Souza-Talarico, J. N., Caramelli, P., Nitrini, R., & Chaves, E. C. (2009). Stress symptoms and coping strategies in healthy elderly subjects. Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP, 43(4), 803-809. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0080-62342009000400010
Dhama, K., Patel, S. K., Natesan, S., Vora, K. S., Iqbal Yatoo, M., Tiwari, R., Saxena, S. K., Singh, K. P., Singh, R., & Malik, Y. S. (2020). COVID-19 in the elderly people and advances in vaccination approaches. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 16(12), 2938–2943. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2020.1842683
Dickinson, W. J., Potter, G. G., Hybels, C. F., McQuoid, D. R., & Steffens, D. C. (2011). Change in stress and social support as predictors of cognitive decline in older adults with and without depression. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 26(12), 1267-1274. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.2676
Dong, X., Chang, E. S., Wong, E., & Simon, M. (2012). Perception and negative effect of loneliness in a Chicago Chinese population of older adults. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 54(1), 151-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2011.04.022
Dunkle, R. E.; Roberts, B., & Haug, M. (2001). The oldest-old in everyday life: Self perception, coping with change, and stress. Springer.
Dykstra, P. A. (2015). Aging and social support. Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosa033.pub2
Dziechciaż, M. & Filip, R. (2014). Biological psychological and social determinants of old age: Bio-psycho-social aspects of human aging. Annals of agricultural and environmental medicine : AAEM, 21(4), 835-838. https://doi.org/10.5604/12321966.1129943
Ellwardt, L., Wittek, R., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2020). Social network characteristics and their associations with stress in older adults: Closure and balance in a population-based sample. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 75(7), 1573-1584. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbz035
Escher, C., Gomez, R., Paulraj, S., Ma, F., Spies-Upton, S., Cummings, C., Brown, L. M., Thomas Tormala, T., & Goldblum, P. (2019). Relations of religion with depression and loneliness in older sexual and gender minority adults. Clinical Gerontologist, 42(2), 150-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2018.1514341
Fakoya, O. A., McCorry, N. K., & Donnelly, M. (2020). Loneliness and social isolation interventions for older adults: a scoping review of reviews. BMC public health, 20(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8251-6
Fernández–Ballesteros, R. (2003). Social support and quality of life among older people in Spain. Journal of Social Issues 58(4):645-659. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00282
Giebel, C., Pulford, D., Cooper, C., Lord, K., Shenton, J., Cannon, J., Shaw, L., Tetlow, H., Limbert, S., Callaghan, S., Whittington, R., Rogers, C., Komuravelli, A., Rajagopal, M., Eley, R., Downs, M., Reilly, S., Ward, K., Gaughan, A., Butchard, S., & Gabbay, M. (2021). COVID-19-related social support service closures and mental well-being in older adults and those affected by dementia: a UK longitudinal survey. BMJ open, 11(1), e045889. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-045889
Gorenko, J. A., Moran, C., Flynn, M., Dobson, K., & Konnert, C. (2021). Social isolation and psychological distress among older adults related to COVID-19: A narrative review of remotely-delivered interventions and recommendations. Journal of Applied Gerontology : the Official Journal of the Southern Gerontological Society, 40(1), 3-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464820958550
Gottlieb, B. H. & Bergen, A. E. (2010). Social support concepts and measures. Journal of psychosomatic research, 69(5), 511-520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.10.001
Groarke, J. M., Berry, E., Graham-Wisener, L., McKenna-Plumley, P. E., McGlinchey, E., & Armour, C. (2020). Loneliness in the UK during the COVID-19 pandemic: Cross-sectional results from the COVID-19 psychological wellbeing study. PloS one, 15(9), e0239698. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239698
Hackett, R. A., Hamer, M., Endrighi, R., Brydon, L., & Steptoe, A. (2012). Loneliness and stress-related inflammatory and neuroendocrine responses in older men and women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(11), 1801-1809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.016
Hajek, A. & König, H. H. (2021). Social isolation and loneliness of older adults in times of the COVID-19 pandemic: Can use of online social media sites and video chats assist in mitigating social isolation and loneliness?. Gerontology, 67(1), 121–124. https://doi.org/10.1159/000512793
Hajek, A., Brettschneider, C., Lühmann, D., Eisele, M., Mamone, S., Wiese, B., Weyerer, S., Werle, J., Pentzek, M., Fuchs, A., Riedel-Heller, S. G., Luck, T., Bickel, H., Weeg, D., Koppara, A., Wagner, M., Scherer, M., Maier, W., König, H. H., & Study on Ageing, Cognition and Dementia in Primary Care Patients Group (2016). Effect of visual impairment on physical and cognitive function in old age: Findings of a population-based prospective cohort study in Germany. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 64(11), 2311-2316. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.14458
Heidinger, T. & Richter, L. (2020). The effect of COVID-19 on loneliness in the elderly. An empirical comparison of pre-and peri-pandemic loneliness in community-dwelling elderly. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 585308. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.585308
Holmén, K. & Furukawa, H. (2002). Loneliness, health and social network among elderly people--a follow-up study. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 35(3), 261-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-4943(02)00049-3
Holmes, T. H. & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11(2), 213-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(67)90010-4
House, J. S., Umberson, D., & Landis, K. R. (1988). Structures and processes of social support. Annual Review of Sociology, 14, 293-318.
Huang, L. J., Du, W. T., Liu, Y. C., Guo, L. N., Zhang, J. J., Qin, M. M., & Liu, K., (2019). Loneliness, stress, and depressive symptoms among the Chinese rural empty nest elderly: A moderated mediation analysis. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 40(1), 73-78. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840.2018.1437856
Hwang, T. J., Rabheru, K., Peisah, C., Reichman, W., & Ikeda, M. (2020). Loneliness and social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Psychogeriatrics, 32(10), 1217-1220. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610220000988
Ihle, A., Oris, M., Sauter, J., Rimmele, U., & Kliegel, M. (2018). Cognitive reserve and social capital accrued in early and midlife moderate the relation of psychological stress to cognitive performance in old age. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 45(3-4), 190-197. https://doi.org/10.1159/000488052
Ironson, G., Lucette, A., Hylton, E., Pargament, K. I., & Krause, N. (2018). The relationship between religious and psychospiritual measures and an inflammation marker (CRP) in older adults experiencing life event stress. Journal of Religion and Health, 57(4), 1554-1566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-018-0600-8
Jaspal, R. & Breakwell, G. M. (2021). Social support, perceived risk and the likelihood of COVID-19 testing and vaccination: cross-sectional data from the United Kingdom. Current Psychology, 1–13. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01681-z
Javadi, S. & Nateghi, N. (2020). COVID-19 and its psychological effects on the elderly population. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 14(3), e40–e41. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2020.245
Jeon, H. S., Dunkle, R., & Roberts, B. L. (2006). Worries of the oldest-old. Health & social work, 31(4), 256-265. https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/31.4.256
Johnson, J. E. (1996). Social support and physical health in the rural elderly. Applied Nursing Research : ANR, 9(2), 61-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0897-1897(96)80424-1
Jones, D. A., Victor, C. R., & Vetter, N. J. (1985). The problem of loneliness in the elderly in the community: characteristics of those who are lonely and the factors related to loneliness. The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, 35(272), 136-139.
Kadowaki, L., Wister, A. V., & Chappell, N. L. (2015). Influence of home care on life satisfaction, loneliness, and perceived life stress. Canadian Journal on Aging, 34(1), 75-89. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0714980814000488
Kaplan, D. B. & Berkaman, B. J. (2021). Older people living alone. Retrieved from https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/older-people%E2%80%99s-health-issues/social-issues-affecting-older-people/older-people-living-alone
Kemperman, A., van den Berg, P., Weijs-Perrée, M., & Uijtdewillegen, K. (2019). Loneliness of older adults: Social network and the living environment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(3), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030406
Kessels, R., Luyten, J., & Tubeuf, S. (2021). Willingness to get vaccinated against Covid-19 and attitudes toward vaccination in general. Vaccine, 39(33), 4716-4722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.05.069
Killeen, C. (1998). Loneliness: An epidemic in modern society. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 28(4), 762-770.
Kim, J. E., Lee, Y. L., Chung, M. A., Yoon, H. J., Shin, D. E., Choi, J. H., Lee, S., Kim, H. K., & Nam, E. W. (2021). Effects of social prescribing pilot project for the elderly in rural area of South Korea during COVID-19 pandemic. Health Science Reports, 4(3), e320. https://doi.org/10.1002/hsr2.320
Knoll, N. & Schwaezer, R. (2002). Gender and age differences in social support: A study of east german migrants. Heart Disease: Environment, Stress and Gender, ISO Press.
Koyanagi, A., Oh, H., Vancampfort, D., Carvalho, A. F., Veronese, N., Stubbs, B., & Lara, E. (2019). Perceived stress and mild cognitive impairment among 32,715 community-dwelling older adults across six low- and middle-income countries. Gerontology, 65(2), 155-163. https://doi.org/10.1159/000492177
Krause, N. & Rainville, G. (2020). Age differences in meaning in life: Exploring the mediating role of social support. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 88, 104008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2020.104008
Krause, N. (1997). Anticipated support, received support, and economic stress among older adults. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 52(6), 284-293. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/52b.6.p284
Lavretsky, H. & Newhouse, P. A. (2012). Stress, inflammation and aging. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20(9), 1-7. https://doi.org/ 10.1097/JGP.0b013e31826573cf
Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
Lee, H. S. & Kim, C. (2016). Structural equation modeling to assess discrimination, stress, social support, and depression among the elderly women in South Korea. Asian Nursing Research, 10(3), 182-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anr.2016.06.003
Li, D., Zhang, D. J., Shao, J. J., Qi, X. D., & Tian, L. (2014). A meta analysis of the prevalence of depressive symptoms in Chinese older adults. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 58(1), 1-9. https://doi.org 10.1016/j.archger.2013.07.016
Li, S. & Xu, Q. (2020). Family support as a protective factor for attitudes toward social distancing and in preserving positive mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Health Psychology, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320971697
Li, X., Tan, Z., Guo, N., Qi, S., & Shao, J. (2019). The impact of effort-reward imbalance on loneliness of the elderly: The multiple mediation effect of social support and control belief in social domain. Journal of elder abuse & neglect, 31(4-5), 294-306. https://doi.org/10.1080/08946566.2019.1663332
Li, Y. W. & Zhou, L. S. (2016). Research on the lonely situation and intervention strategy of empty-nest elderly. Chinese Journal of Gerontology, 36(11), 2809-2811. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11136-007-9250-0
Liao, C. C., Li, C. R., Lee, S. H., Liao, W. C., Liao, M. Y., Lin, J., Yeh, C. J., & Lee, M. C. (2015). Social support and mortality among the aged people with major diseases or ADL disabilities in Taiwan: A national study. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 60(2), 317-321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2014.11.007
Lim, L. L. & Kua, E. H. (2011). Living alone, loneliness, and psychological well-being of older persons in singapore. Current Gerontology and Geriatrics Research, 2011, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/673181
Lin, H. W., Hsu, H. C., & Chang, M. C. (2011). Gender differences in the association between stress trajectories and depressive symptoms among middle aged and older adults in Taiwan. Journal of Women & Aging, 23(3), 233-245. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952841.2011.587738
Liu, L., Gou, Z., & Zuo, J. (2016). Social support mediates loneliness and depression in elderly people. Journal of health psychology, 21(5), 750-758. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105314536941
Liu, Y., Li, T., Guo, L., Zhang, R., Feng, X., & Liu, K. (2017). The mediating role of sleep quality on the relationship between perceived stress and depression among the elderly in urban communities: a cross-sectional study. Public Health, 149, 21-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2017.04.006
Lu, S., Wu, Y., Mao, Z., & Liang, X. (2020). Association of formal and informal social support with health-related quality of life among Chinese rural elders. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(4), 1351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041351
Lue, B. H., Chen, L. J., & Wu, S. C. (2010). Health, financial stresses, and life satisfaction affecting late-life depression among older adults: a nationwide, longitudinal survey in Taiwan. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 50(1), 34-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4943(10)70010-8
Luo, Y., Sun, F., Jiang, L., & Zhang, A. (2019). The stress and coping experiences among Chinese rural older adults in welfare housing: through the lens of life review. Aging & Mental Health, 23(9), 1086-1094. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1612322
Macdonald, B. & Hülür, G. (2021). Well-being and loneliness in Swiss older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of social relationships. The Gerontologist, 61(2), 240-250. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaa194
Madison, A. A., Shrout, M. R., Renna, M. E., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (2021). Psychological and behavioral predictors of vaccine efficacy: Considerations for COVID-19. Perspectives on Psychological Science : A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 16(2), 191–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691621989243
Malik, A. A., McFadden, S. M., Elharake, J., & Omer, S. B. (2020). Determinants of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance in the US. E ClinicalMedicine, 26, 100495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100495
McCabe, L., Dawson, A., Douglas, E., & Barry, N. (2021). Using technology the right way to support social connectedness for older people in the era of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(16), 8725. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168725
Moxey, A., McEvoy, M., Bowe, S., & Attia, J. (2011). Spirituality, religion, social support and health among older Australian adults. Australasian Journal on Ageing, 30(2), 82-88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-6612.2010.00453.x
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2020). Social isolation and loneliness in older adults: Opportunities for the health care system. The National Academies Press.
Nguyen, A. W., Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., & Mouzon, D. M. (2016). Social support from family and friends and subjective well‐being of older African Americans. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(3), 959-979. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9626-8
Oliveira, N. A., Souza, É. N., Luchesi, B. M., Inouye, K., & Pavarini, S. (2017). Stress and optimism of elderlies who are caregivers for elderlies and live with children. Revista Brasileira De Enfermagem, 70(4), 697-703. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2017-0088
Ong, A. D., Uchino, B. N., & Wethington, E. (2016). Loneliness and health in older adults: A mini-review and synthesis. Gerontology, 62(4), 443-449. https://doi.org/10.1159/000441651
OʼSúilleabháin, P. S., Gallagher, S., & Steptoe, A. (2019). Loneliness, living alone, and all-cause mortality: The role of emotional and social loneliness in the elderly during 19 years of follow-up. Psychosomatic Medicine, 81(6), 521-526. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000710
Pegorari, M. S., Silva, C., Araújo, F. C., Silva, J., Ohara, D. G., Matos, A. P., Matos, A. P., & Pinto, A. (2021). Factors associated with social isolation and loneliness in community-dwelling older adults during pandemic times: a cross-sectional study. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical, 54, e01952020. https://doi.org/10.1590/0037-8682-0195-2020
Peng, S. & Roth, A. R. (2021). Social isolation and loneliness before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: a longitudinal study of US Adults over 50. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 68, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbab068
Perlman, D. & Peplau, L. A. (1982). Theoretical approaches to loneliness. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284634633_Theoretical_approaches_to_loneliness
Phillips, A. C., Carroll, D., Evans, P., Bosch, J. A., Clow, A., Hucklebridge, F., & Der, G. (2006). Stressful life events are associated with low secretion rates of immunoglobulin A in saliva in the middle aged and elderly. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 20(2), 191-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2005.06.006
Picaza Gorrochategi, M., Eiguren Munitis, A., Dosil Santamaria, M., & Ozamiz Etxebarria, N. (2020). Stress, anxiety, and depression in people aged over 60 in the COVID-19 outbreak in a sample collected in Northern Spain. The American jJournal of Geriatric Psychiatry : Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(9), 993-998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2020.05.022
Preston, D. B. (1995). Marital status, gender roles, stress, and health in the elderly. Health Care for Women International, 16(2), 149-165. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399339509516166
Rahman, M. A., Rahman, M. A., Rahman, M. S. (2019). Prevalence and determinants of loneliness among older adults in Bangladesh. International Journal of Emerging Trends in Social Sciences, 5(2), 57-64. https://doi.org/ 10.20448/2001.52.57.64
Reher, D. & Requena, M. (2018). Living alone in later life: A global perspective. Population and Development Review, 44(3), 427-454. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12149
Richard, A., Rohrmann, S., Vandeleur, C. L., Schmid, M., Barth, J., & Eichholzer, M. (2017). Loneliness is adversely associated with physical and mental health and lifestyle factors: Results from a Swiss national survey. PloS One, 12(7), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181442
Roohafza, H., Ramezani, M., Sadeghi, M., Shahnam, M., Zolfagari, B., & Sarafzadegan, N. (2011). Development and validation of the stressful life event questionnaire. International Journal of Public Health, 56(4), 441-448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-011-0232-1
Rook, K. S. (1984). Promoting social bonding: Strategies for helping the lonely and socially isolated. American Psychologist, 39(12), 1389-1407. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.12.1389
Rossi, R., Jannini, T. B., Socci, V., Pacitti, F., & Lorenzo, G. D. (2021). Stressful life events and resilience during the COVID-19 lockdown measures in Italy: Association with mental health outcomes and age. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 635832. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.635832
Rubio, L., Dumitrache, C., Cordon-Pozo, E., & Rubio-Herrera, R. (2016). Coping: Impact of gender and stressful life events in middle and in old age. Clinical Gerontologist, 39(5), 468-488. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2015.1132290
Rushing, N. C., Corsentino, E., Hames, J. L., Sachs-Ericsson, N., & Steffens, D. C. (2013). The relationship of religious involvement indicators and social support to current and past suicidality among depressed older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 17(3), 366-374. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2012.738414
Russell, D., Cutrona, C. E., Rose, J., & Yurko, K. (1984). Social and emotional loneliness: an examination of Weiss's typology of loneliness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(6), 1313-1321. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.46.6.1313
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Ferguson, M. L. (1978). Developing a measure of loneliness. Journal of Personality Assessment, 42(3), 290-294. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4203_11
Sacco, P., Bucholz, K. K., & Harrington, D. (2014). Gender differences in stressful life events, social support, perceived stress, and alcohol use among older adults: results from a National Survey. Substance Use & Misuse, 49(4), 456-465. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2013.846379
Sarason, I. G., Johnson, J. H., & Siegel, J. M. (1978). Assessing the impact of life changes: Development of the life experiences survey. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46(5), 932-946. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.46.5.932
Sarason, I. G., Levine, H. M., Basham, R. B., Sarason, B. R., (1983). Assessing social support: The social support questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 127-139. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.127
Savikko, N., Routasalo, P., Tilvis, R. S., Strandberg, T. E., & Pitkälä, K. H. (2005). Predictors and subjective causes of loneliness in an aged population. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 41(3), 223-233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2005.03.002
Schnittger, R. I., Wherton, J., Prendergast, D., & Lawlor, B. A. (2012). Risk factors and mediating pathways of loneliness and social support in community-dwelling older adults. Aging & mental health, 16(3), 335-346. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2011.629092
Segrin C. (2019). Indirect effects of social skills on health through stress and loneliness. Health Communication, 34(1), 118–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1384434
Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. McGraw-Hill.
Shrira, A., Hoffman, Y., Bodner, E., & Palgi, Y. (2020). COVID-19-related loneliness and psychiatric symptoms among older adults: The buffering role of subjective age. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry : Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(11), 1200-1204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2020.05.018
Shrira, A., Hoffman, Y., Bodner, E., & Palgi, Y. (2020). COVID-19-related loneliness and psychiatric symptoms among older adults: The buffering role of subjective age. The American journal of geriatric psychiatry : official journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(11), 1200-1204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2020.05.018
Slavich, G. M. (2016). Life stress and health: A review of conceptual issues and recent findings. Teach Psychol, 43(4), 346-355. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628316662768
Soiza, R. L., Scicluna, C., & Thomson, E. C. (2021). Efficacy and safety of COVID-19 vaccines in older people. Age and Ageing, 50(2), 279-283. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afaa274
Stokes, J. P. (1987). The relation of loneliness and self-disclosure. In V. J. Derlega & J. H. Berg (Eds.), Perspectives in social psychology. Self-disclosure: Theory, research, and therapy (p. 175-201). Plenum Press.
Takagi, E. & Saito Y. (2019). Japanese older adults’ loneliness, family relationships and mortality: Does one’s living arrangement make a difference? Geriatrics & Gerontology International, 20(2), 156-160. https://doi.org/10.1111/ggi.13837
Tandon, M. (2017). Assessment of the level of stress among elderly. International Journal of Home Science, 3(2), 31-33. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.17903.2
Thoits, P. A. (2010). Stress and health: Major findings and policy implications. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1), 41-53.
Tiikkainen, P. & Heikkinen, R. L. (2005). Associations between loneliness, depressive symptoms and perceived togetherness in older people. Aging & Mental Health, 9(6), 526-534. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607860500193138
Tsai, A. C., Chi, S. H., & Wang, J. Y. (2013). The association of perceived stress with depressive symptoms in older Taiwanese-Result of a longitudinal national cohort study. Preventive Medicine, 57(5), 646-651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2013.08.019
Tsai, C.-Y., Yang, C.-S., Tung, T.-H., Chou, P., Kuo, L.-L., Tsai, I.-L., & Woung, L.-C. (2003). Community-based study on prevalence and causes of visual impairment among the elderly in Taipei and Matsu. Taiwan Journal of Ophthalmology, 42(3), 178-186. http://doi.org/10.30048/ACTASOS.200309.0002
Tsai, Y. F., Yeh, S. H., & Tsai, H. H. (2005). Prevalence and risk factors for depressive symptoms among community-dwelling elders in Taiwan. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20(11), 1097-1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.1413
Tschanz, J. T., Pfister, R., Wanzek, J., Corcoran, C., Smith, K., Tschanz, B. T., Steffens, D. C., Østbye, T., Welsh-Bohmer, K. A., & Norton, M. C. (2013). Stressful life events and cognitive decline in late life: moderation by education and age: The cache county study. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(8), 821-830. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.3888
United Nations. (2019). World Population Prospects 2019. Retrieved from https://population.un.org/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2019_Highlights.pdf
van Tilburg, T. G. (2021). Emotional, social, and existential loneliness before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: Prevalence and risk factors among Dutch older adults. The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, gbab101. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbab101
Victor, C. R. & Yang, K. (2012). The prevalence of loneliness among adults: A case study of the United Kingdom. The Journal of psychology, 146(1-2), 85-104. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2011.613875
Vilhjalmsson, R. (1993). Life stress, social support and clinical depression: A reanalysis of the literature. Social Science & Medicine, 37(3), 331-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(93)90264-5
Wang, J. J., Snyder, M., & Kaas, M. (2001). Stress, loneliness, and depression in Taiwanese rural community-dwelling elders. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 38(3), 339-347. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0020-7489(00)00072-9
Weiss, R. S. (1973). Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Weiss, R. S. (1974). The provisions of social relationships. In Z. Rubin (Ed.), Doing unto others (pp. 17-26). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Wenger, G. C. & Burholt, V. (2004). Changes in levels of social isolation and loneliness among older people in a rural area: A twenty-year longitudinal study. Canadian Journal on Aging, 23(2), 115-127. https://doi.org/10.1353/cja.2004.0028
West, D. A., Kellner, R., & Moore-West, M. (1986). The effects of loneliness: A review of the literature. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 27(4), 351-363. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-440x(86)90011-8
Whitehead, B. R. & Torossian, E. (2021). Older adults' experience of the COVID-19 pandemic: A mixed-methods analysis of stresses and joys. The Gerontologist, 61(1), 36–47. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaa126
Wickens, C. M., McDonald, A. J., Elton-Marshall, T., Wells, S., Nigatu, Y. T., Jankowicz, D., & Hamilton, H. A. (2021). Loneliness in the COVID-19 pandemic: Associations with age, gender and their interaction. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 136, 103-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.01.047
Wong, S., Zhang, D., Sit, R., Yip, B., Chung, R. Y., Wong, C., Chan, D., Sun, W., Kwok, K. O., & Mercer, S. W. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 on loneliness, mental health, and health service utilisation: A prospective cohort study of older adults with multimorbidity in primary care. The British Journal of General Practice : The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, 70(700), e817–e824. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp20X713021
World Bank Group. (2019). Population ages 65 and above (% of total population). Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS
Wu, B. (2020). Social isolation and loneliness among older adults in the context of COVID-19: A global challenge. Global Health Research and Policy, 5(27), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41256-020-00154-3
Xiao, Q., Wu, M., & Zeng, T. (2019). Social support networks in Chinese older adults: health outcomes and health related behaviors: A path analysis. Aging & Mental Health, 23(10), 1382-1390. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2018.1488941
Xie, H., Peng, W., Yang, Y., Zhang, D., Sun, Y., Wu, M., Zhang, J., Jia, J., & Su, Y. (2018). Social support as a mediator of physical disability and depressive symptoms in Chinese elderly. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 32(2), 256-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2017.11.012
Younger, J. B. (1995). The alienation of the sufferer. Advances in Nursing Science, 17(4), 53-72.
Ypsilanti, A., Gettings, R., Lazuras, L., Robson, A., Powell, P. A., & Overton, P. G. (2020). Self-disgust is associated with loneliness, mental health difficulties, and eye-gaze avoidance in war veterans with PTSD. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.559883
Zhong, B. L., Chen, S. L., Tu, X., & Conwell, Y. (2017). Loneliness and cognitive function in older adults: Findings from the Chinese longitudinal healthy Longevity Survey. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 72(1), 120-128. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw037
Zhuori, N., Cai, Y., Yan, Y., Cui, Y., & Zhao, M. (2019). Does social support affect the health of the elderly in rural China? A meta-analysis approach. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(18), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16183471
Zimmermann, J. G. (1785). Uber díe einsamkeit (About loneliness). Frankfurt: Thoppau.