臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

The Gambia, like many developing countries, has also witnessed increase in
the numbers of both local and international NGOs engaged in the country’s
development. Currently, there are 120 registered NGOs, 59 of which are
international NGOs and 61 being local NGOs. Although the number of the
registered NGOs is increasing, there are concerns over their existence or
operation in terms of sustainability.
The research probes the effects of certain measures on some factors that could
ascertain the sustainability of local and international NGOs in The Gambia
and to weigh up these NGOs concerning the discerned measures and factors
that could affect their sustainability. A qualitative research method using
secondary data and supported with a Delphi technique was adopted.
Purposive sampling was used to select the samples which include local and
international NGOs; and only managers in the NGO sector in The Gambia.
Through qualitative data analysis, the research explores the determinants of
sustainability of these NGOs by summarizing, and establishing relationships
among them; while quantitatively, the paper implores descriptive analysis to
further study the factors.
The results show that the sustainability of local and international NGOs in
The Gambia depends on the degree to which certain measures are prioritized
by the managers of the NGOs.
The findings of this research will be important for various stakeholders to
better understand the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for the
sustainability of NGOs in The Gambia; likewise preparing them to adopt and
implement better policies in line with their divergent institutional missions
and visions.

The Gambia, like many developing countries, has also witnessed increase in
the numbers of both local and international NGOs engaged in the country’s
development. Currently, there are 120 registered NGOs, 59 of which are
international NGOs and 61 being local NGOs. Although the number of the
registered NGOs is increasing, there are concerns over their existence or
operation in terms of sustainability.
The research probes the effects of certain measures on some factors that could
ascertain the sustainability of local and international NGOs in The Gambia
and to weigh up these NGOs concerning the discerned measures and factors
that could affect their sustainability. A qualitative research method using
secondary data and supported with a Delphi technique was adopted.
Purposive sampling was used to select the samples which include local and
international NGOs; and only managers in the NGO sector in The Gambia.
Through qualitative data analysis, the research explores the determinants of
sustainability of these NGOs by summarizing, and establishing relationships
among them; while quantitatively, the paper implores descriptive analysis to
further study the factors.
The results show that the sustainability of local and international NGOs in
The Gambia depends on the degree to which certain measures are prioritized
by the managers of the NGOs.
The findings of this research will be important for various stakeholders to
better understand the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for the
sustainability of NGOs in The Gambia; likewise preparing them to adopt and
implement better policies in line with their divergent institutional missions
and visions.

CONTENTS
List of Tables
List of Figures
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………1
1.1 Research Background…………………………………………………1
1.2 Research Motivation…………………………………………………..3
1.3 Research Objectives and Questions…………………………………...4
1.4 Expected Contribution………………………………………………...5
1.5 Research Procedure………………………………………...………….5
Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………….8
2.1 NGO Sustainability……………………………………………………8
2.2 Determinants of NGO Sustainability………………………………...12
2.2.1 Leadership and Management of NGOs…………………………..14
2.2.2 Financial Sustainability…………………………………………..19
2.2.3 Accountability……………………………………………………29
2.2.4 Legal Environment……………………………………………….33
2.3 Sustainability and NGOs in The Gambia……………………….........36
Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY…………………………………………….41
3.1 Research Framework………………………………………………....41
3.2 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………....42
3.3 Research Method…………………………………………………......45
3.4 Sampling……………………………………………………………...47
3.5 Data Collection……………………………………………………….49
3.6 Data Analysis………………………………………………………...50
Chapter 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS……………………………..51
4.1 Background of the Respondents ……………………………………..52
4.2 Determinants of Sustainability of local NGOs in The Gambia………53
4.3 Determinants of Sustainability of International NGOs in The
Gambia……………………………………………………………..59
4.4 A comparison of the Determinants of Sustainability of Local and
International NGOs in The Gambia……………..............................66
Chapter 5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS………………..……..73
5.1 Conclusion……………………………………………………………73
5.2 Managerial Implications……………………………………………...75
5.3 Research Limitations…………………………………………………76
5.4 Further Research Suggestions………………………………………..77
Abbreviations……………………………………………………………….78
References…………………………………………………………………..79
Appendix 1: NGO Code of Conduct……………………………………….87
Appendix 2: Registered NGOs in The Gambia as per the inception of
NGOAA in 1996…………………………………………………...93
Appendix 3: Cover Letter and Questionnaire……………………………..109
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Agencies and their Functions……………………………………37
Table 2.2 Registered and De-registered NGOs……………………………...40
Table 4.1: Descriptive statistics of the measures for the leadership and
management of local NGOs in The Gambia……………….............53
Table 4.2: Descriptive statistics of the measures for the financial sustainability
of local NGOs in The Gambia…………………………….………..55
Table 4.3: Descriptive statistics of the measures for the accountability of local
NGOs in The Gambia…………….………………………………..56
Table 4.4: Descriptive statistics of the measures for the legal environment of
local NGOs in The Gambia………………………………………..58
Table 4.5: Descriptive statistics of the measures for the leadership and
management of international NGOs in The Gambia…………….....60
Table 4.6: Descriptive statistics of the measures for the financial sustainability
of international NGOs in The Gambia……………………………..61
Table 4.7: Descriptive statistics of the measures for the accountability of
international NGOs in The Gambia………………………………..63
Table 4.8: Descriptive statistics of the measures for the legal environment of
international NGOs in The Gambia………………………………..65
Table 4.9: Descriptive statistics of the measures for leadership and
management of local and international NGOs in The Gambia- a
comparison…………………………………………………………66
Table 4.10: Descriptive statistics of the measures for the financial
sustainability of local and international NGOs in The Gambia- a
comparison…………………………………………………………68
Table 4.11: Descriptive statistics of the measures for the accountability of
local and international NGOs in The Gambia- a comparison……...69
Table 4.12: Descriptive statistics of the measures for the legal environment of
local and international NGOs in The Gambia- a comparison……...71
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Research Procedures………………………………………………7
Figure 2.1 Diversification of Sources of Funding…………………………...27
Figure 2.2 Research Framework…………………………………………….41

References
Adair, J. (2002). Strategic Leadership, Pan Macmillan UK. Volume 9 of Effective Series.
Agyemang, G. (2009). NGO Accountability and Aid Delivery, London: Certified Accountants Educational Trust.
Assoku, S.A. (2004). Issues of Accountability in the NGO Sector (retrieved on December 10, 2014 from http://www.modernghana.com/news/113697/1/issues-of-accountability-in-the-ngo-sector.html)
AtKisson, A. (October 2001). Sustainability is Dead—Long Live Sustainability. www.academia.edu/6420556/Sustainability_is_Dead_Long_Live_Sustainability. Retrieved on December 1, 2014
Axelrod, N.R. (2005). Board Leadership and Development. In R.D. Herman & Associates (Eds.), The Jossey Bass Handbook of Nonprofit Leadership and Management, San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
Binder-Aviles, H. (2012). The NGO Handbook, US Department of State, Bureau of International Information Programs.
Centre for African Family Studies. (November 2001). Situation Analysis of NGO Governance and Leadership in Eastern, Southern, Central and Western Africa.
Clause, C. (2014). Content Validity: Definition, Index & Examples.
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/content-validity-definition-index-examples.html Retrieved on December 17, 2014.
Daft, R.L. (1999). Leadership: Theory and Practice. Dryden Press.
Dixon, R., Ritchie, J. and Siwale, J. (2006), ‘Microfinance: Accountability from the Grassroots’, Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal.
Edwards, M., & Hulme, D. (1996). Too close for comfort? The Impact of Official Aid on Nongovernmental Organizations, World Development
Ekins, P. (1992). ‘A Four-Capital Model of Wealth Creation’, in P. Ekins and M. Max-Neef(eds). Real-Life Economics: Understanding Wealth Creation, pp. 147–55, London and New York: Routledge.
Ekins, P. & Medhurst, J. (2006). The European Structural Funds and Sustainable Development: A Methodology and Indicator Framework for Evaluation, SAGE Publications.
Ekins, P., Dresner, S., & Dahlström, K. (2007). The Four-Capital Method of Sustainable Development Evaluation. King’s College London, Policy Studies Institute, London, UK.
Fox, J. A., & Brown, L. D. (Eds.). (1998). The struggle for accountability: The World Bank, NGOs, and grassroots movements, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Gibelman, M. & Gelman S. R. (2001): Very Public Scandals: Nongovernmental Organizations in: Trouble, in Volunteers: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations.
Glaser, B. (1963). The use of secondary analysis by the independent researcher, The American Behavioral Scientist.
Glass, G. (1976). Primary, Secondary and Meta-analysis of Research. Educational Research.
Goddard, A. & Assad, M. J. (2006). Accounting and Navigating Legitimacy in Tanzanian NGOs, Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal.
Grant, H.M. & Crutchfield, L.R. (2007). Creating High-Impact Nonprofits, Leland Stanford Jr. University.
Hailey, J. (16 November, 2014). The sustainable NGO: Why resourcing matters. www.mango.org.uk/guide/financialsustainability. Retrieved on December 4, 2014
Herman & Heimovics. (1990). An Investigation of Leadership Skill Differences in Chief Executives of Nonprofit Organizations, American Review of Public Administration.
Hewson, C. (2006). Secondary Analysis, in Jupp, V. (ed.), The Sage Dictionary of Research Methods, London: Sage.
Holden, R.R. (2010). Face Validity, John Wiley & Sons.
Hsu, C. & Sandford, B.A. (2007). The Delphi Technique: Making Sense of Consensus, Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation Volume 12.
Jenkins , W. (2009). Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability: Vol.1 The Spirit of Sustainability
Jordan, L. & Van Tuijl, P. (2006). NGO Accountability, London: Earthscan.
Knauft, E.B., Berger, R.A. & Gray, S.T. (1991). Profiles of excellence: Achieving success in the non-profit sector, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Kotter, J. (1990). What Leaders Really Do, Harvard Business Review.
Leduc, R. F., & Block, S. R. (1985). Conjoint Directorship: Clarifying Management Roles Between the Board of Directors and the Executive Director, Journal of Voluntary Action Research.
León, P. (2001). Four Pillars of Financial Sustainability, Resources for Success Series Volume 2, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, USA.
Lloyd, R. & Lucy de las Casas, NGO self-regulation: enforcing and balancing accountability, http://www.oecd.org/dev/devcom/44251309.pdf
Ludwig, B. (1997). Predicting the future: Have you considered using the Delphi methodology? Journal of Extension, 35 (5), 1-4. http://www.joe.org/joe/1997october/tt2.html Retrieved December 11, 2014.
Mango, Oxford, UK,
www.mango.org.uk/guide/financialsustainability. Retrieved December 02, 2014.
Miller, L. E. (2006, October). Determining what could/should be: The Delphi technique and its application. Paper presented at the meeting of the 2006 annual meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, Columbus, Ohio.
Moore, M. (1993). Good government? Introduction. IDS Bulletin, 24
Morse, J. M. (2000). Determining Sample Size, Qualitative Health Research, Res Nurs Health.
Newman & Wallender, (1978). Managing for Not-for-profit Enterprises, Academy of Management Review
Nget, A. President Jammeh Cautions NGOs
http://dailynews.gm/africa/gambia/article/president-jammeh-cautions-ngos Retrieved on November 6, 2014.
NGO Affairs Agency Report (2008)
http://nsagm.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/0/3/12030125/ngoaa_annual_report_2008.pdf. Retrieved on October 3, 2014.
NGO Code of Conduct, The Gambia.
http://www.oneworldtrust.org/csoproject/images/documents/GMBA1.pdf. Retrieved on November 24, 2014.
Nkrumah, E. E. (2010). Key Factors Influencing the Sustainability of Local NGOS in the Wassa East and Wassa West Districts of the Western Region of Ghana, University of Cape Coast.
Pearce, D.W., Markandya, A., & Barbier, E.P. (1989). Blueprint for a Green Economy, London, UK, Earthscan Publications.
Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf. Retrieved on October 20, 2014
Robinson, M. (1993) .Governance, democracy and conditionality: NGOs and the new policy agenda, in Clayton, A., (ed.) Governance, democracy and conditionality: what role for NGOs? Intrac, Oxford.
Rost, J.C. (1993). Leadership for the Twenty-first Century, Greenwood Publishing Group.
Sandelowski M. (1995). Sample Size in Qualitative Research, Res Nurs Health.
Sanyal B. 1994. Cooperative autonomy: the dialectics of state-NGO relationships in developing countries. Research Series 100, Geneva: ILO.
Sanyang, L. (6 July 2011). Gambia: ''120 NGOs Registered in Country,'' Says VP Njie-Saidy
http://allafrica.com/stories/201107061599.html Retrieved on October 13, 2014
Sontag-Padilla, L.M. et.al (2012). Financial Sustainability for Nonprofit Organizations, RAND Corporation.
Serageldin, I. & A. Steer. (1994). ‘Epilogue: Expanding the Capital Stock’, in I. Serageldin & A. Steer (eds). Making Development Sustainable: From Concepts to Action, Environmentally Sustainable Development Occasional Paper Series, 2. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Sireci, S. G. (2007). Content Validity, in Salkind, N.J. & Rasmussen, K. Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics (2007), SAGE.
Smalley, J.K. (2011). Leadership Characteristics and Practices of Selected High-Performing Nonprofit Organizations in Northeast Florida, University of North Florida.
Sutton, P. (28 August 2008). Sustainability: What does it mean? Green Innovations Inc.
Teijlingen, E. et al. Delphi method and nominal group techniques in family planning and reproductive health research
Transparency International, The Anti-Corruption Plain Language Guide http://www.transparency.org/publications/publications/other/plain_language_guide. Retrieved on December 7, 2014.
Trivunovic, M. (February 2011) Countering NGO corruption: Rethinking the conventional approaches, U4 Issue No 3.
Turner E. A. L. (2010). Why Has the Number of International Non- Governmental Organizations Exploded since 1960? UC Riverside, Cliodynamics: The Journal of Theoretical and Mathematical History.
Turoff, M., & Hiltz, S. R. (1996). Computer based Delphi process. In M. Adler, & E. Ziglio (Eds.). Gazing into the oracle: The Delphi method and its application to social policy and public health, London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Ulschak, F. L. (1983). Human resource development: The theory and practice of need assessment, Reston, VA: Reston Publishing Company, Inc.
United States Agency for International Development. (2009). The 2009 NGO Sustainability Index for Sub-Saharan Africa.
United States Agency for International Development. (2010). The 2010 NGO Sustainability Index for Sub-Saharan Africa.
United States Agency for International Development. (2012). The 2012 CSO Sustainability Index for Sub-Saharan Africa.
VanSant, J. (14 October2003). Challenges of Local NGO Sustainability. USAID/PVC-ASHA Annual PVO Conference.
Young, D.R, Bania, N, & Bailey, D. (1996). Structure and accountability a study of national nonprofit associations, Nonprofit Management and Leadership Volume 6, Issue 4.
Yukl, G. (2006). Leadership in Organizations, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Zaleznik, A. (1977). Managers and Leaders: Are they different? Harvard Business Review