過去的二十年來，空間指涉、空間概念，以及最重要的，空間認知皆引發了一陣研究的風潮。由於空間概念難以藉由觀察人類行為來加以研究，空間語言便成為研究空間概念之內在世界的一個絕佳管道。因此，本論文旨在探索隱藏在噶瑪蘭語中的空間認知，而我們的目標主要有兩個。一方面，我們徹底分析噶瑪蘭語當中所有表現空間概念的語言手段。研究發現，噶瑪蘭語中表現空間概念的構詞句法類別和空間語意類別（諸如路徑、區塊、方向等）皆有各自的互動模式。此外，一般而言噶瑪蘭語使用者憑藉著他們對一組主體（Figure）和背景（Ground）之間的常態互動便能推知該運動事件當中所涉及的處所角色（local role）以及處所區塊（localization），因此某種程度上簡化了語言形式上的複雜度。
另一方面，藉由分析噶瑪蘭語母語使用者的自發性言談，我們研究敘事體故事中的運動事件之結構，而這第二個研究目標又可細分為兩個面向。第一個面向所關心的是反映在路線指示當中的路線知識（route knowledge），並且特別留心參照框架（Frames of Reference）的使用情形。我們的研究顯示，雖然噶瑪蘭語使用者也會使用觀點中心式（Viewpoint-centered）和物體中心式（Object-centered）參照框架，但是他們主要還是藉由地心式（Geocentric）參照框架來引導問路人，包含基本方位以及上下軸，而這項結果或可歸因於新社部落的地理佈局。在新社部落，東、西兩方位分別對應於海、陸以及下、上兩種座標軸，而南、北兩方位則分別對應於下、上兩軸。因此，這些不同的座標軸在當地彼此交互疊合後便突顯了地心式參照框架在路線指示中的重要地位。
另一個面向的研究重心則是針對噶瑪蘭語的《青蛙故事》進行語意分析。我們的語料顯示，噶瑪蘭語和塔加洛語以及宿霧語一樣是一種相當典型的動詞框架化語言（Verb-framed language），同時，在黃宣範及洪媽益（2005）所研究的六種西南島語的動作事件之語意類型當中，噶瑪蘭語和塔加洛語以及宿霧語也是最為相似。此外，噶瑪蘭語動作事件中最值得注意的句構是由「wiya#V」所表達的連動句，它除了描述主體（Figure）不斷朝遠離認知者的方向移動之外，還能表達一種狀態逐漸萌生或一項活動持續進行。有趣的是，動作動詞「wiya (離開、消失)」和「yau (存在、出現)」之間存在著某種類似的語法化過程—兩者皆帶有空間指示、動作、時貌等功能—而此一現象最終則可歸因於空間和時間之間的概念性類比。

Spatial reference, spatial concepts, and most importantly spatial conceptualizations have attracted a flurry of research over the past two decades. Spatial language, in particular, provides researchers with an access to the inner world of spatial concepts, which are difficult to investigate by mere observation of other human behaviors. This thesis thus investigates the spatial conceptualizations in Kavalan, and the aim here is twofold. On the one hand, we conduct a detailed investigation of all linguistic means available in Kavalan recruited for spatial reference. It is found that in Kavalan each of the morphosyntatic categories that express spatial meanings has its own interaction patterns with spatial semantic categories such as Path, Region, and Direction. Moreover, what Kavalan speakers need to interpret the local role and localization in a Motion event is normally their spatial knowledge about the canonical interaction between a given pair of Figure and Ground, which helps to “simplify” the coding of linguistic forms.
On the other hand, we study the structure of Motion events in narratives by looking into spontaneous speech produced by native speakers. This second perspective further divides into two dimensions. One is concerned with route knowledge as reflected in route instructions, with extra attention paid to the application of Frames of Reference (FoR). Our study shows that Kavalan speakers guide wayfinders en route by appealing largely to the Geocentric FoR (both cardinal directions and the up-down axis), though Viewpoint-centered and Object-centered FoR are also in use. This strategy is due to the nature of the geographical layout of Hsinshê Village, where the west-east axis corresponds to the land-sea and up-down axes while the north-south axis to the up-down axis. Consequently, these overlapping axes in the local environment enhance the prominent status of the Geocentric FoR in route directions.
The other dimension focuses on a semantic analysis of the Frog narratives. According to our data, Kavalan must be recognized as a fairly typical verb-framed language on a par with Tagalog and Cebuano, to which Kavalan bears the strongest resemblance in the semantic typology of Motion events in the six Western Austronesian languages investigated in Huang and Tanangkingsing (2005). In addition, the most significant construction type in Kavalan is the “wiya#V” serialization, which not only describes a Figure moving progressively away from the conceptualizer, but can also depict an emerging state of affairs or a continuous activity. Interestingly, the Motion verb wi(ya) ‘leave, disappear’ shares a parallel development of grammaticalization with the Motion verb yau ‘exist, appear’ by uniting place deixis, Motion, and aspect functions, which can be ultimately attributed to the conceptual analogy between space and time.

Acknowledgements i
English Abstract ii
Chinese Abstract iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables vii
List of Figures ix
Abbreviations and Conventions x

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.0 Research on Spatial Language 1
1.1 Research Questions 2
1.2 Database, Methodology, and Organization 3
1.3 A Brief Sketch of Kavalan Grammar 4
1.3.1 General background 4
1.3.2 Phonemic inventory 6
1.3.3 Focus system and word order 7
1.3.4 Case marking system 11
1.3.5 Pronominal system 13

Chapter 2 Literature Review 19
2.0 Preliminary 19
2.1 Basic Spatial Semantic Categories 19
2.1.1 Figure and Ground 20
2.1.2 Motion 22
2.1.3 Path 23
2.1.4 Region and Direction 25
2.1.5 Frame of Reference 27
2.2 Linguistic Typologies of Motion Events 30
2.2.1 Talmy’s typologies 30
2.2.2 Refinements of Talmy’s typologies 33
2.2.3 Other perspectives on Motion events 36
2.3 Empirical Studies in Austronesian Languages 39
2.3.1 Malayo-Polynesian languages 40
2.3.1.1 Spatial reference 40
2.3.1.2 Motion in discourse 43
2.3.2 Formosan languages 44
2.3.2.1 Seediq 44
2.3.2.2 Squliq Atayal 46
2.3.2.3 Saisiyat 49
2.3.2.4 Tsou 51
2.3.2.5 Paiwan 53

Chapter 3 Structuring a Kavalan Space: where Form Meets Function 57
3.0 Preliminary 57
3.1 Basic Locative Constructions 58
3.2 Spatial Information in Closed-class Forms 61
3.2.1 Spatial locatives 62
3.2.1.1. Location 68
3.2.1.2 Source 70
3.2.1.3 Goal 75
3.2.1.4 Milestone 82
3.2.2 Directional verbals 87
3.2.3 Locative nouns 90
3.2.3.1 The superior and inferior Region 93
3.2.3.2 The exterior and interior Region 96
3.2.3.3 The anterior and posterior Region 99
3.2.3.4 The medial and lateral Region 103
3.2.3.5 The left-right axis 105
3.2.4 Cardinal directions 108
3.2.5 Demonstratives 115
3.3 Spatial Information in Open-class Forms 123
3.3.1 Place nouns 123
3.3.2 Motion verbs 126
3.4 Finale 133

Chapter 4 Motion in Narratives: Finding the Way and the Frog 142
4.0 Preliminary 142
4.1 Finding the Way: the Conspiracy of Frames of Reference 142
4.1.1 Route directions 143
4.1.2 The way from abas to Raciang 146
4.1.2.1 Probing variations 149
4.1.2.2 Establishing generalizations 159
4.1.3 Interim summary 163
4.2 Finding the Frog: the Expression of Motion Events 164
4.2.1 Data and methodology 165
4.2.2 Results 168
4.2.2.1 The lexicalization patterns of Motion verbs 169
4.2.2.2 Morphosyntactic patterns of Motion components 174
4.2.2.2.1 Motion verbs and directional verbals 174
4.2.2.2.2 Spatial locatives 181
4.2.2.3 Ground specifications 182
4.2.2.4 The Owl’s Exit 188
4.2.2.5 The “cliff scene” 191
4.2.3 Discussion 193
4.3 Finale 202

Chapter 5 Conclusion 206
5.0 Recapitulation 206
5.1 Implications 209
5.2 Suggestions for Future Research 210

References 213

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