臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本研究探討媒體報導中語言與政治立場之關係。以臺灣電視新聞為例，我們分析了東森新聞、民視新聞、三立新聞及中天新聞所報導的政治新聞。採用方法包括量化的內容分析(content analysis)及以語言為重的批判言談分析(critical discourse analysis)，並將此兩分析方法所得之成果用於驗證范‧迪克(van Dijk)於1998年所提出之意識型態方陣(ideological square)。我們以內容分析量化研究2007年4月15日到5月9日間，四家新聞台總共100集的新聞節目。並從中選出三則重大政治新聞，以批判言談分析作為個案研究。分析結果一致顯示不管在報導數量或報導語言方面，東森及中天皆傾向國民黨，而民視與三立則傾向民進黨。
在內容分析中，我們發現新聞台對於政治新聞的處理深受其意識型態及政治立場所影響，而這些影響反映在新聞則數、新聞長度及新聞排序上。也就是說，新聞台對於所喜愛的政黨會給予其較多且較長的報導，並且這些報導會安排在節目一開始做為重點新聞，來凸顯其重要性。相反地，對於敵對的政黨，新聞台則給予較少且偏短的報導，並將其排序在節目後段。
在批判言談分析中，我們分析了新聞報導語言中的宏觀以及微觀結構。在新聞的宏觀分析中，我們驗證了新聞台在呈現報導一個新聞事件時所提出的各項資訊，並非隨機出現，而是依據意識型態方陣經過縝密的安排。因此，對我們有利或對他們不利之資訊會獲得傳播，相反地，對我們不利而對他們有利之資訊則會受到相對的封鎖。不只宏觀架構如此，微觀的運用亦如是。根據我們對於新聞報導中語言銜接之分析，我們也發現了不論是連接詞(conjunction)或是字彙銜接(lexical cohesion)，皆被媒體人操弄用來建構一個符合他們意識型態及政治立場的報導。
因此，本研究證實了不論是在報導數量上或是報導語言上，一個新聞台的政治立場皆顯著地影響了其政治新聞，亦即驗證了范‧迪克之意識型態方陣：對自己有利而對他人不利之訊息會被呈現，相對應的是對自己不利而對他人有利之訊息會被壓抑。

This study aims to investigate the relations between language and political stances in the press. Four TV news stations in Taiwan were selected: ETTV News, FTV News, SET News, and CTi News. Both quantitative content analysis and critical discourse analysis were conducted to testify the ideological square proposed by van Dijk (1998). A total of 100 programs, from April 15 to May 9, 2007, were videotaped and quantitatively measured using content analysis. Three political events were further under critical discourse analysis as case studies. Results of the analyses revealed that ETTV News and CTi News were prone to the KMT, while FTV News and SET News were prone to the DPP.
In the content analysis, it is found that a station’s political inclination biases its arrangement of political news in terms of news item, news duration, and news appearing order. Therefore, events congruent with the stations’ stances receive more reports of longer duration and appear earlier in a program. Contrarily, events that go against the stations’ ideologies receive fewer and more sketchy reports which come later in a program.
In the critical discourse analysis, both macro- and micro-structures of the reports were examined. The analysis of news schema has manifested that the presentation of information by news stations is not random, but tactically organized according to the ideological square. Hence, information positive about us or negative about them would be expressed, while information positive about them or negative about us is suppressed. In the micro-analysis, it is shown that cohesive devices, including conjunction and lexical cohesion, are also manipulated by journalists to construct a world that best serves their ideologies and political stances.
In sum, the study has demonstrated that preferred stances and ideologies are advocated by news stations in terms of quantity of news coverage as well as language of news reporting, whereas unwelcome stances and ideologies are suppressed both quantitatively and linguistically.

CHINESE ABSTRACT I
ENGLISH ABSTRACT III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V
TABLE OF CONTENTS VII
LIST OF TABLES IX
LIST OF FIGURES XI

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Motivation 1
1.2 Ideology 2
1.3 Political Environment in Taiwan 3
1.4 Scope and Goal 4
1.5 Organization of the Present Study 6

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Content Analysis 7
2.2 Critical Discourse Analysis 11
2.2.1 Theoretical Background 11
2.2.1.1 Flower and His Colleagues 11
2.2.1.2 Fairclough 15
2.2.1.3 van Dijk 18
2.2.1.4 A Summary of Critical Discourse Analysis 23
2.2.2 Empirical Studies 24

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 31
3.1 Data Collection 31
3.2 TV News 33
3.3 Data Analysis 34
3.3.1 Content Analysis 34
3.3.2 Critical Discourse Analysis 36
3.3.3 A Sample Construction of Macrostructure 36

CHAPTER FOUR CONTENT ANALYSIS 41
4.1 Political News in a TV News Program 41
4.2 Content Analysis of Political News 43
4.2.1 Analysis of News Item 43
4.2.2 Analysis of News Duration 45
4.2.3 Analysis of News Appearing Order 48
4.3 Results and Discussion 51

CHAPTER FIVE CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: CASE STUDIES 53
5.1 Background 53
5.1.1 Ma Ying-jeou’s Special Expenses Indictment 53
5.1.2 The DPP Joint Conference 54
5.1.3 Taiwan’s Rejection of the Beijing Olympic Torch Relay 54
5.2 Ideological Square 55
5.3 Content Analysis 56
5.4 Critical Discourse Analysis: Macrostructure 60
5.4.1 Analysis of Ma Ying-jeou’s Special Expenses Indictment 60
5.4.2 Analysis of the DPP Joint Conference 67
5.4.3 Analysis of Taiwan’s Rejection of the Beijing Olympic Torch Relay 75
5.4.4 Discussion on Macrostructure 83
5.5 Critical Discourse Analysis: Microstructure 87
5.6 Results and Discussion 102

CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION 105
6.1 Summary and Implications 105
6.2 Limitations of the Present Study and Suggestions for Future Research 108

REFERENCES 109

APPENDIX A Full content of the FTV News report on Ma’s special expenses indictment 117
APPENDIX B Political Headline Stories in ETTV News, FTV News, SET News, and CTi News from April 15, 2007 to May 9, 2007 121

Abbott, Barbara. 2000. Presuppositions as nonassertions. Journal of Pragmatics 32, 1419-37.
Achugar, Mariana. 2004. The events and actors of 11 September 2001 as seen from Uruguay: Analysis of daily newspaper editorials. Discourse & Society 15(2-3), 291-320.
Bell, Allan. 1991. The Language of News Media. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Berelson, Bernard. 1952. Content Analysis in Communication Research. New York: Free Press.
Blommaert, Jan. 2005. Discourse: A Critical Introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Boyd, Andrew. 2001. Broadcast Journalism: Techniques of Radio and Television News, 5th ed. Oxford: Focal Press.
Caldas-Coulthard, Carmen Rosa. 1993. From discourse analysis to critical discourse analysis: The differential re-presentation of women and men speaking in written news. In John M. Sinclair, Michael Hoey, and Gwyneth Fox (eds), Techniques of Description: Spoken and Written Discourse. London: Routledge, 196-208.
Chafe, Wallace L. 1982. Integration and involvement in speaking, writing, and oral literature. In Deborah Tannen (ed.), Spoken and Written Language: Exploring Orality and Literacy. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex, 35-53.
D’Alessio, Dave and Mike Allen. 2000. Media bias in presidential elections: A meta-analysis. Journal of Communication 50(4), 133-56.
Erjavec, Karmen. 2001. Media representation of the discrimination against the Roma in Eastern Europe: The case of Slovenia. Discourse & Society 12(11), 699-727.
Fairclough, Norman. 1989. Language and Power. London: Longman.
Fairclough, Norman. 1992. Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press
Fairclough, Norman. 1995. Media Discourse. London: Edward Arnold.
Fang, Yew-Jin. 1994. ‘Riots’ and demonstrations in the Chinese press: A case study of language and ideology. Discourse & Society 5(4), 463-81.
Fang, Yew-Jin. 2001. Reporting the same event? A critical analysis of Chinese print news media texts. Discourse & Society 12(5), 585-613.
Flowerdew, John, David C.S. Li, and Sarah Tran. Discriminatory news discourse: Some Hong Kong data. Discourse & Society 13(3), 319-45.
Foucault, Michel. 1972. The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language, translated from the French by A. M. Sheridan Smith. New York: Pantheon Books.
Fowler, Roger. 1991. Language in the News. London: Routledge.
Fowler, Roger. 1996. On critical linguistics. In Carmen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard and Malcolm Coulthard (eds.), Texts and Practices: Readings in Critical Discourse Analysis. London: Routledge, 3-14.
Fowler, Roger, Bob Hodge, Gunther Kress, and Tony Trew. 1979. Language and Control. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Franklin, Bob, Martin Hamer, Mark Hanna, Marie Kinsey, and John E. Richardson. 2005. Key Concepts in Journalism Studies. London: Sage.
Halliday, M.A.K. 1978. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning. London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M.A.K. 1985. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M.A.K. and Ruqaiya Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
Herman, Edward S. and Noam Chomsky. 1988. Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York: Pantheon Books.
Kress, Gunther and Robert Hodge. 1979. Language as Ideology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Kuo, Sai-hua. 2001. “Is there only one China?”: Analyzing the rhetoric of Chinese nationalism in a newspaper article. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 11(2), 283-99.
Kuo, Sai-hua. 2007. Language as ideology: Analyzing quotations in Taiwanese News Discourse. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 17(2), 281-301.
Kuo, Sai-hua and Mari Nakamura. 2005. Translation or transformation? A case study of language and ideology in the Taiwanese press. Discourse & Society 16(3), 393-417.
Labov, William. 1972. Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson. 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lee, Junghi and Robert L. Craig. 1992. News as an ideological framework: Comparing US newspaper’s coverage of labor strikes in South Korea and Poland. Discourse & Society 3(3), 341-63.
Levison, Stephen C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge.
Norrick, Neal R. 2001. Discourse and Semantics. In Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen, and Heidi E. Hamilton (eds), The Handbook of Discourse Analysis, 76-99.
Richardson, John E. 2004. (Mis)representing Islam: The Racism and Rhetoric of British Broadsheet Newspapers. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Saeed, John I. 2003. Semantics, 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell.
Schank, Roger C. and Robert P. Abelson. 1977. Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding: An Inquiry into Human Knowledge Structures. Hillsdale, New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schokkenbroek, Christina. 1999. News stories: Structure, time and evaluation. Time and Society 8(1), 59-98.
Searle, John R. 1970. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge.
Teo, Peter. 2000. Racism in the news: A critical discourse analysis of news reporting in two Australian newspapers. Discourse & Society 11(1), 7-49.
Thetela, Puleng. 2001. Critique discourses and ideology in newspaper reports: A discourse analysis of the South African press reports on the 1998 SADC's military intervention in Lesotho. Discourse & Society 12(5), 347-70.
Thompson, Geoff. 1996. Voices in the text: Discourse perspectives on language reports. Applied Linguistics 17(4), 501-30.
Thompson, Rick. 2005. Writing for Broadcast Journalists. London: Routledge.
Trew, Tony. 1979a. Theory and ideology at work. In Fowler et al., Language and Control. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 94-116.
Trew, Tony. 1979b. ‘What the papers say’: Linguistic variation and ideological difference. In Fowler et al., Language and Control. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 117-156.
van Dijk, Teun A. 1988. News as Discourse. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
van Dijk, Teun A. 1991. Racism and the Press. London: Routledge.
van Dijk, Teun A. 1993. Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse and Society 4(2), 249-83.
van Dijk, Teun A. 1998. Ideology. London: Sage.
Wang, Shujen. 1993. The New York Times’ and Renmin Ribao’s news coverage of the 1991 Soviet coup: A case study of international news discourse. Text 13(4), 559-98.
Wang, Yu-Fang. 2005. From lexical to pragmatic meaning: Contrastive markers in spoken Chinese discourse. Text 25(4), 469-518.
Wang, Yu-Fang and Pi-Hua Tsai. 2007. Textual and contextual contrast connection: A study of Chinese contrastive markers across different text types. Journal of Pragmatics 39, 1775-1815.
Waugh, Linda R. 1995. Reported speech in journalistic discourse: The relation of function and text. Text 15(1), 129-73.
Woolard, Kathryn A. 1998. Introduction: Language ideology as a field of inquiry. In Bambi B. Schieffelin, Kathryn A. Woolard, and Paul V. Kroskrity (eds.), Language Ideologies: Practice and Theory. New York: Oxford University Press, 3-47.
Yopp, Jan Johnson and Katherine C. McAdams. 1999. Reaching Audiences: A Guide to Media Writing, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Yorke, Ivor. 2000. Television News, 4th ed, revised by Ray Alexander. Oxford: Focal Press.

中文參考書目
張玉玲 (Chang, Yu-ling). 2006. 臺灣報紙對319槍擊事件的新聞報導之研究─比較聯合報、中國時報、蘋果日報、自由時報. 世新大學新聞學研究所(含碩專班)碩士論文.
陳憶寧 (Chen, Katherine Yi-Ning). 2001. 總統候選人攻擊性新聞報導與其支持度的關聯：以公元兩千年總統大選為例. 新聞學研究 69, 113-40.
陳萬達 (Chen, Wuan-ta Philip). 2001. 現代新聞編輯學. 台北: 揚智.
陳義彥 (Chen, Yih-yan), 陳世敏 (Shi-Min Chen). 1992. 78年選舉的報紙，新聞與廣告內容分析. 台北: 明田.
齊隆壬 (Chi, Lungzin), 蔡美瑛 (Mavis Tsai). 2005. 有線電視收視行為及滿意度調查研究. 行政院新聞局專題研究調查報告.
簡琬璧 (Chien, Wan-pi). 2002. 李登輝的報紙形象－以聯合報及自由時報為例. 淡江大學大眾傳播學系碩士論文.
黃新生 (Hwang, Sherman). 1994. 電視新聞. 台北: 遠流.
文麗 (Kochurova, Marina). 2008. 大陸與台灣報紙對李登輝2007年訪日報導之比較研究. 國立政治大學新聞研究所碩士論文.
李蕙怡 (Li, Hui-i). 2008. 電視與報紙選舉新聞偏差現象之研究─以2008年總統大選為例. 國立屏東教育大學社會發展學系碩士論文.
李莉 (Li, Li). 2001. 試析副詞“卻”. 保定師範學報 14(3), 82-91.
林媛洳 (Lin, Yuan-Ju). 2004. 論漢語口語中的對比言談標記—「可是」，「但是」，與「不過」. 國立清華大學語言學研究所碩士論文.
劉清平 (Liu, Qing-ping). 2000. 卻與但是的語意、句法和語用比較. 學術研究 10, 122-25.
羅文輝 (Lo, Ven-Hwei), 侯志欽 (Gee-Chin Hou), 鄧麗萍 (Lee-Ping Tang), 李偉農 (Wei-Nung Lee). 2004. 2004年電視總統選舉新聞的政黨偏差. 廣播與電視 23, 1-21.
羅文輝 (Lo, Ven-Hwei), 王慧馨 (Huei-Hsing Wang), 侯志欽 (Gee-Chin Hou). 2007. 2004年台灣報紙總統選舉新聞之政治偏差. 選舉研究 14(2), 95-120.
羅文輝 (Lo, Ven-Hwei), 黃葳威 (Wei-Wei Vivian Huang). 2001. 2000年總統選舉公民營報紙新聞之比較研究. 選舉研究 7(1), 1-20.
牛隆光 (Niu, Lung-Guang), 林靖芬. 2006. 透視電視新聞：實務與研究工作談. 台北: 學富.
王功平 (Wang, Gong-ping). 2007. “倒”與“卻”的交際功能對比研究. 暨南大學華文學院學報 2007(2), 71-77.
王泰俐 (Wang, Tai-Li). 2006. 電視新聞「感官主義」對閱聽人接收新聞的影響. 新聞學研究 86, 91-133.
葉思吟 (Yeh, Szu-Yin). 2001. 2000年總統大選候選人競選活動分析─以中國時報、聯合報、自由時報為研究對象. 中國文化大學新聞研究所碩士論文